MULTIPLE 
IntEllIgEncEsin the Classroom 
MULTIPLE 
IntEllIgEncEsin the Classroom 
Thomas Armstrong 

3rd Edition 


Multiple

intelligencesin the Classroom 

3rd Edition 


Many ASCD members received this book as a 
member benefit upon its initial release. 

Learn more at: www.ascd.org/memberbooks 

ASCD cares about Planet Earth. 
This book has been printed on environmentally friendly paper. 



Multiple

intelligencesin the Classroom 

3rd Edition 

thomas Armstrong 

 


Alexandria, Virginia USA 


1703 N. Beauregard St.  Alexandria, VA 22311-1714 USA 
Phone: 800-933-2723 or 703-578-9600  Fax: 703-575-5400 
Web site: www.ascd.org  E-mail: member@ascd.org 
Author guidelines: www.ascd.org/write 

Gene R. Carter, Executive Director; Nancy Modrak, Publisher; Julie Houtz, Director of Book Editing & 
Production; Ernesto Yermoli, Project Manager; Reece Quiones, Senior Graphic Designer; Mike Kalyan, 
Production Manager; BMWW, Typesetter; Kyle Steichen, Production Specialist 

Copyright  2009 by Thomas Armstrong. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be 
reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, 
recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission from Thomas 
Armstrong, P.O. Box 548, Cloverdale, CA 95425. 

Printed in the United States of America. Cover art  2009 by Rafael Lopez. ASCD publications present 
a variety of viewpoints. The views expressed or implied in this book should not be interpreted 
as official positions of the Association. 

ASCD Member Book, No. FY09-6 (May 2009, P). ASCD Member Books mail to Premium (P) and 
Comprehensive (C) members on this schedule: Jan., PC; Feb., P; Apr., PC; May, P; July, PC; Aug., P; 
Sept., PC; Nov., PC; Dec., P. 

PAPERBACK ISBN: 978-1-4166-0789-2 ASCD product #109007 
Also available as an e-book through ebrary, netLibrary, and many online booksellers (see Books in 
Print for the ISBNs). 

Quantity discounts for the paperback edition only: 1049 copies, 10%; 50+ copies, 15%; for 1,000 or 
more copies, call 800-933-2723, ext. 5634, or 703-575-5634. For desk copies: member@ascd.org. 

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data 
Armstrong, Thomas. 
Multiple intelligences in the classroom / Thomas Armstrong.  3rd ed. 
p. cm. 
Includes bibliographical references and index. 
ISBN 978-1-4166-0789-2 (pkb.: alk. paper) 
1. Teaching. 2. Cognitive styles. 3. Learning. 4. Multiple intelligences. 
Supervision and Curriculum Development. II. Title.
I. Association for 
LB1025.3.A76 2009 
370.15'23dc22 
2009000377 

20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 09 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 


3rd Edition 

MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES 

in the classroom 

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .vii 
Preface by Howard Gardner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix 
Introduction to the 3rd Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 

1. The Foundations of MI Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5 

2. MI Theory and Personal Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20 

3. Describing Intelligences in Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32 

4. Teaching Students About MI Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44 

5. MI Theory and Curriculum Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54 

6. MI Theory and Teaching Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72 

7. MI Theory and the Classroom Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .99 

8. MI Theory and Classroom Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .112 

9. The MI School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .122 

10. MI Theory and Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .130 

11. MI Theory and Special Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .149 

12. MI Theory and Cognitive Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .161 

13. Other Applications of MI Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .173 

14. MI Theory and Existential Intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .182 

15. MI Theory and Its Critics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .190 

16. MI Theory Around the Globe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .199 

Appendixes 

A. Related MI Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .207 

B. Related Books on MI Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .211 

C. Examples of MI Lessons and Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215 

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .222 
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .230 
About the Author . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .246 

v 


Acknowledgments 


Many people have helped make this book possible. First, I thank Howard 
Gardner, whose generous support of my work over the years has helped fuel 
my continued involvement in MI theory. I also want to thank Mert Hanley, 
former director of the Teaching/Learning Center in the West Irondequoit 
School District in upstate New York, for encouraging me to write a book for 
teachers on multiple intelligences and for providing me with the opportunity 
to work with several school districts in the Rochester, New York, area. 
Over a period of four years in those districts, I tried out many of the ideas 
in this book. Thanks also to the following individuals who helped in different 
ways to give form to Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom in one or more of 
its three editions: Ron Brandt, Sue Teele, David Thornburg, Chris Kunkel, 
Branton Shearer, Tom Hoerr, Jo Gusman, Jean Simeone, Pat Kyle, DeLee 
Lanz, Peggy Buzanski, Dee Dickinson, and my wife, Barbara Turner. I also 
want to thank Nancy Modrak, Scott Willis, Carolyn Pool, Julie Houtz, and the 
rest of the staff at ASCD for making this 3rd edition of Multiple Intelligences 
in the Classroom possible. Working with the wonderful people in the ASCD 
book department has been one of the literary and educational joys of my 
life. I encourage other educators who feel that they have a book inside of 

vii 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

them to consider publishing with ASCDgo to www.ascd.org for submission 
guidelines. Finally, my special appreciation goes out to the thousands 
of teachers, administrators, and students who responded to the ideas and 
strategies presented in these pages: This book has been created in recognition 
of the rich potential that exists in each of you. 


Preface 


In addition to my own writings, there are now a number of guides to the 
theory of multiple intelligences, written by my own associates at Harvard 
Project Zero and by colleagues in other parts of the country. Coming from a 
background in special education, Thomas Armstrong was one of the first 
educators to write about the theory. He has always stood out in my mind 
because of the accuracy of his accounts, the clarity of his prose, the broad 
range of his references, and the teacher-friendliness of his tone. 

Now he has prepared the book that you hold in your hands for members 
of the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Displaying 
the Armstrong virtues that I have come to expect, this volume is a reliable 
and readable account of my work, directed particularly to teachers, administrators, 
and other educators. Armstrong has also added some nice touches 
of his own: the notion of a paralyzing experience, to complement Joseph 
Walters and my concept of a crystallizing experience; the suggestion to 

Howard Gardner is Hobbs Professor of Cognition and Education and codirector of Project Zero at 
the Harvard Graduate School of Education and adjunct professor of neurology at the Boston University 
School of Medicine. He is the author of Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences 
(Basic Books, 1983/1993), Multiple Intelligence: The Theory in Practice (Basic Books, 1993), Intelligence 
Reframed: Multiple Intelligences for the 21st Century (Basic Books, 1999), and Multiple Intelligences: 
New Horizons (Basic Books, 2006). 

ix 
ixix 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

attend to the way that youngsters misbehave as a clue to their intelligences; 
and some informal suggestions about how to involve youngsters in an 
examination of their own intelligences and how to manage ones classroom 
in an MI way. He has included several rough-and-ready tools that can allow 
one to assess ones own intellectual profile, to get a handle on the strengths 
and proclivities of youngsters under ones charge, and to involve youngsters 
in games built around MI ideas. He conveys a vivid idea of what MI classes, 
teaching moves, curricula, and assessments can be like. Each chapter concludes 
with a set of exercises to help one build on the ideas and practices 
that one has just read about. 

As Armstrong points out in his introduction, I do not believe that there 
is a single royal road to an implementation of MI ideas in the classroom. I 
have been encouraged and edified by the wide variety of ways in which educators 
around the country have made use of my ideas, and I have no problem 
saying, Let 100 MI schools bloom. From my perspective, the essence 
of the theory is respect for the many differences among people, the multiple 
variations in the ways that they learn, the several modes by which they can 
be assessed, and the almost infinite number of ways in which they can leave 
a mark on the world. Because Thomas Armstrong shares this vision, I am 
pleased that he has had the opportunity to present these ideas to you, and 
I hope that you in turn will be stimulated to extend them in ways that bear 
your own particular stamp. 

Howard Gardner 


Introduction 
to the 3rd Edition 

This book has emerged from my work over the past 23 years in applying 
Howard Gardners theory of multiple intelligences to the nuts-and-bolts 
issues of classroom teaching. I was initially attracted to MI theory in 1985 
when I saw that it provided a language for talking about the inner gifts of 
children, especially those students who have been given labels such as LD 
and ADHD during their school careers (Armstrong, 1987a, 1987b, 1988, 
1997, 1999b). It was as a learning disabilities specialist during the late 1970s 
and early 1980s that I began to feel the need to disassociate myself from 
what I considered to be a deficit-oriented paradigm in special education. I 
wanted to forge a new model based on what I plainly saw were the many 
gifts of these so-called disabled children. 

I didnt have to create a new model. Howard Gardner had already done 
it for me. In 1979, as a Harvard researcher, Gardner was asked by a Dutch 
philanthropic group, the Bernard Van Leer Foundation, to investigate human 
potential. This invitation led to the founding of Harvard Project Zero, which 
served as the institutional midwife for the theory of multiple intelligences. 
Although Gardner had been thinking about the notion of many kinds of 
minds since at least the mid-1970s (see Gardner, 1989, p. 96), the publication 
in 1983 of his book Frames of Mind marked the effective birthdate of 

1 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

MI theory. Since that time, awareness among educators about the theory 
of multiple intelligences has continued to grow steadily. From a model that 
was originally popular mostly in the field of gifted education and among 
isolated schools and teachers around the United States in the mid- to late 
1980s, MI theory has expanded its reach over the past 20 years to include 
thousands of school districts, tens of thousands of schools, and hundreds 
of thousands of teachers in the United States and numerous countries 
across the globe. 

In this book, I present my own particular adaptation of Gardners model 
for teachers and other educators. My hope is that people can use this book 
in several ways to help stimulate continued reforms in education: 

 
As a practical introduction to the theory of multiple intelligences for 
individuals new to the model; 
 
As a supplementary text for teachers in training in schools of 
education; 
 
As a study guide for groups of teachers and administrators working in 
schools that are implementing reforms; and 
 
As a resource book for teachers and other educators looking for new 
ideas to enhance their teaching experience. 
Each chapter concludes with a section called For Further Study that 
can help readers integrate the material into their instructional practice. 
Several appendixes and a list of references alert readers to other materials 
related to MI theory that can enrich and extend their understanding of the 
model. 

With the publication of the 2nd edition of Multiple Intelligences in the 
Classroom in 2000, two new features were added to the original work. First, 
the naturalist intelligence (integrated into MI theory by Howard Gardner in 
1997) was incorporated into all the activities, charts, strategies, and other 
materials related to the first seven intelligences. Second, a new chapter 
(Chapter 14) was added focusing on the possibility of a ninth intelligence 
the existentialwhich Gardner describes as the intelligence of concern with 
ultimate life issues such as the meaning of life, the problem of evil, and the 
aims of human endeavor (Gardner, 1999). As of this writing, the existential 
intelligence still has not been formally included as one of the intelligences in 
MI theory but, rather, exists on the periphery as a potential candidate. 


Introduction 

Now, in this 3rd edition, two more chapters have been added. Chapter 
15 focuses on criticisms that have been made about MI theory over the past 
10 years. These criticisms have emerged in part because of the overwhelming 
success of the model (success tends to invite criticism), in part because 
of the more conservative nature of the times (a consequence of the U.S. 
federal governments No Child Left Behind lawsee Armstrong, 2006), and 
in part because criticism of a theory is always an important component of 
its further development and improvement. In addition to providing critical 
arguments from a number of journalistic and academic sources against the 
validity of multiple intelligences, Ive provided my own responses, which I 
hope will stimulate further critical conversations about MI theory. Ive also 
added Chapter 16, which focuses on the spread of MI theory around the 
world. Even as MI theory has received increasing criticism in the United 
States, it has spread by leaps and bounds in many countries around the 
world. I provide a snapshot of some of these international developments, by 
chronicling the impact of MI theory at the policymaking level (MI has been 
incorporated into some countries laws and federal initiatives), at the academic 
level (many new studies are coming out on MI theory covering populations 
from Hong Kong to Zimbabwe), at the community level (in Denmark, 
for example, a world-class interactive museum has been created based on 
multiple intelligences), and finally, at the school and classroom level. In 
addition to two new chapters, I have updated all of the references, resources, 
and technological developments so that they reflect the rapid expansion in 
the past eight years of new books, journal articles, software, and other materials 
that support MI theory. 

Thomas Armstrong 
Sonoma County, California 
July 2008 


1  

The Foundations 
of MI Theory 

It is of the utmost importance that we recognize and nurture all of the varied human 
intelligences, and all of the combinations of intelligences. We are all so different 
largely because we all have different combinations of intelligences. If we recognize 
this, I think we will have at least a better chance of dealing appropriately with the 
many problems that we face in the world.

 Howard Gardner 

In 1904, the minister of public instruction in Paris asked the French psychologist 
Alfred Binet and a group of colleagues to develop a means of determining 
which primary grade students were at risk for failure so these 
students could receive remedial attention. Out of their efforts came the first 
intelligence tests. Imported to the United States several years later, intelligence 
testing became widespread, as did the notion that there was something 
called intelligence that could be objectively measured and reduced 
to a single number or IQ score. 

Almost 80 years after the first intelligence tests were developed, a 
Harvard psychologist named Howard Gardner challenged this commonly 
held belief. Saying that our culture had defined intelligence too narrowly, he 
proposed in the book Frames of Mind (Gardner, 1993a) the existence of at 

5 
55 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

least seven basic intelligences. More recently, he has added an eighth and 
discussed the possibility of a ninth (Gardner, 1999). In his theory of multiple 
intelligences (MI theory), Gardner sought to broaden the scope of human 
potential beyond the confines of the IQ score. He seriously questioned the 
validity of determining intelligence through the practice of taking individuals 
out of their natural learning environment and asking them to do isolated 
tasks theyd never done beforeand probably would never choose to do 
again. Instead, Gardner suggested that intelligence has more to do with the 
capacity for (1) solving problems and (2) fashioning products in a context-
rich and naturalistic setting. 

The Eight Intelligences Described 

Once this broader and more pragmatic perspective was taken, the concept 
of intelligence began to lose its mystique and became a functional concept 
that could be seen working in peoples lives in a variety of ways. Gardner 
provided a means of mapping the broad range of abilities that humans possess 
by grouping their capabilities into the following eight comprehensive 
categories or intelligences: 

Linguistic: The capacity to use words effectively, whether orally (e.g., as 
a storyteller, orator, or politician) or in writing (e.g., as a poet, playwright, 
editor, or journalist). This intelligence includes the ability to manipulate the 
syntax or structure of language, the phonology or sounds of language, the 
semantics or meanings of language, and the pragmatic dimensions or practical 
uses of language. Some of these uses include rhetoric (using language to 
convince others to take a specific course of action), mnemonics (using language 
to remember information), explanation (using language to inform), 
and metalanguage (using language to talk about itself). 

Logical-mathematical: The capacity to use numbers effectively (e.g., as 
a mathematician, tax accountant, or statistician) and to reason well (e.g., as 
a scientist, computer programmer, or logician). This intelligence includes 
sensitivity to logical patterns and relationships, statements and propositions 
(if-then, cause-effect), functions, and other related abstractions. The 
kinds of processes used in the service of logical-mathematical intelligence 
include categorization, classification, inference, generalization, calculation, 
and hypothesis testing. 


The Foundations of MI Theory 

Spatial: The ability to perceive the visual-spatial world accurately (e.g., 
as a hunter, scout, or guide) and to perform transformations upon those 
perceptions (e.g., as an interior decorator, architect, artist, or inventor). 
This intelligence involves sensitivity to color, line, shape, form, space, and 
the relationships that exist between these elements. It includes the capacity 
to visualize, to graphically represent visual or spatial ideas, and to orient 
oneself appropriately in a spatial matrix. 

Bodily-kinesthetic: Expertise in using ones whole body to express ideas 
and feelings (e.g., as an actor, a mime, an athlete, or a dancer) and facility in 
using ones hands to produce or transform things (e.g., as a craftsperson, 
sculptor, mechanic, or surgeon). This intelligence includes specific physical 
skills such as coordination, balance, dexterity, strength, flexibility, and speed, 
as well as proprioceptive, tactile, and haptic capacities. 

Musical: The capacity to perceive (e.g., as a music aficionado), discriminate 
(e.g., as a music critic), transform (e.g., as a composer), and express 
(e.g., as a performer) musical forms. This intelligence includes sensitivity to 
the rhythm, pitch or melody, and timbre or tone color of a musical piece. 
One can have a figural or top-down understanding of music (global, intuitive), 
a formal or bottom-up understanding (analytic, technical), or both. 

Interpersonal: The ability to perceive and make distinctions in the 
moods, intentions, motivations, and feelings of other people. This can 
include sensitivity to facial expressions, voice, and gestures; the capacity for 
discriminating among many different kinds of interpersonal cues; and the 
ability to respond effectively to those cues in some pragmatic way (e.g., to 
influence a group of people to follow a certain line of action). 

Intrapersonal: Self-knowledge and the ability to act adaptively on the 
basis of that knowledge. This intelligence includes having an accurate picture 
of oneself (ones strengths and limitations); awareness of inner moods, 
intentions, motivations, temperaments, and desires; and the capacity for 
self-discipline, self-understanding, and self-esteem. 

Naturalist: Expertise in the recognition and classification of the numerous 
speciesthe flora and faunaof an individuals environment. This also 
includes sensitivity to other natural phenomena (e.g., cloud formations, 
mountains, etc.) and, in the case of those growing up in an urban environment, 
the capacity to discriminate among inanimate objects such as cars, 
sneakers, and CD covers. 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

The Theoretical Basis for MI Theory 

Many people look at the above categoriesparticularly musical, spatial, and 
bodily-kinestheticand wonder why Howard Gardner insists on calling 
them intelligences rather than talents or aptitudes. Gardner realized that 
people are used to hearing expressions like Hes not very intelligent, but he 
has a wonderful aptitude for music; thus, he was quite conscious of his use 
of the word intelligence to describe each category. He said in an interview, 
Im deliberately being somewhat provocative. If Id said that theres seven 
kinds of competencies, people would yawn and say Yeah, yeah. But by calling 
them intelligences, Im saying that weve tended to put on a pedestal 
one variety called intelligence, and theres actually a plurality of them, and 
some are things weve never thought about as being intelligence at all 
(Weinreich-Haste, 1985, p. 48). To provide a sound theoretical foundation 
for his claims, Gardner set up certain basic tests that each intelligence had 
to meet to be considered a full-fledged intelligence and not simply a talent, 
skill, or aptitude. The criteria he used include the following eight factors: 

1. Potential isolation by brain damage 
2. The existence of savants, prodigies, and other exceptional individuals 
3. A distinctive developmental history and a definable set of expert 
end-state performances 
4. An evolutionary history and evolutionary plausibility 
5. Support from psychometric findings 
6. Support from experimental psychological tasks 
7. An identifiable core operation or set of operations 
8. Susceptibility to encoding in a symbol system 
Potential Isolation by Brain Damage 

At the Boston Veterans Administration, Gardner worked with individuals 
who had suffered accidents or illnesses that affected specific areas of the 
brain. In several cases, brain lesions seemed to have selectively impaired 
one intelligence while leaving all the other intelligences intact. For example, 
a person with a lesion in Brocas area (left frontal lobe) might have a substantial 
portion of his linguistic intelligence damaged and thus experience 
great difficulty speaking, reading, and writing. Yet he might still be able to 
sing, do math, dance, reflect on feelings, and relate to others. A person with 


The Foundations of MI Theory 

a lesion in the temporal lobe of the right hemisphere might have her musical 
capacities selectively impaired, while frontal lobe lesions might primarily 
affect the personal intelligences. 

Gardner, then, is arguing for the existence of eight relatively autonomous 
brain systemsa more sophisticated and updated version of the 
right-brain/left-brain model of learning that was popular in the 1970s. 
Figure 1.1 shows the brain structures for each intelligence. 

The Existence of Savants, Prodigies, 
and Other Exceptional Individuals 

Gardner suggests that in some people we can see single intelligences 
operating at high levels, much like huge mountains rising up against the 
backdrop of a flat horizon. Savants are individuals who demonstrate superior 
abilities in part of one intelligence while one or more of their other intelligences 
function at a low level. They seem to exist for each of the eight 
intelligences. For instance, in the movie Rain Man (which is based on a true 
story), Dustin Hoffman plays the role of Raymond, a logical-mathematical 
autistic savant. Raymond rapidly calculates multidigit numbers in his head 
and does other amazing mathematical feats, yet he has poor peer relationships, 
low language functioning, and a lack of insight into his own life. There 
are also savants who draw exceptionally well, savants who have amazing 
musical memories (e.g., playing a composition after hearing it only one 
time), savants who read complex material yet dont comprehend what 
theyre reading (hyperlexics), and savants who have exceptional sensitivity 
to nature or animals (see Grandin & Johnson, 2006, and Sacks, 1995). 

A Distinctive Developmental History and a Definable 
Set of Expert End-State Performances 

Gardner suggests that intelligences are galvanized by participation in 
some kind of culturally valued activity and that the individuals growth in 
such an activity follows a developmental pattern. Each intelligence-based 
activity has its own developmental trajectory; that is, each activity has its 
own time of arising in early childhood, its own time of peaking during ones 
lifetime, and its own pattern of either rapidly or gradually declining as one 
gets older. Musical composition, for example, seems to be among the earliest 
culturally valued activities to develop to a high level of proficiency: Mozart 


Left temporaland frontallobes (e.g.,
Brocas/
Wernickes 
areas)

Left frontal andright parietallobes

Posteriorregions of righthemisphere

Cerebellum,
basal ganglia,
motor cortex 

Explodes in early 
childhood; remainsrobust until old age

Peaks inadolescence andearly adulthood;
higher mathinsights declineafter age 40

Topological 
thinking in earlychildhood givesway to Euclideanparadigm aroundage 910; artisticeye stays robustinto old age

Varies depending 
upon component(strength, fl exibility) 
or domain(gymnastics,
baseball, mime) 

Oral histories,
storytelling,
literature

Scientifi c 
discoveries,
mathematicaltheories,
counting andclassifi cation 
systems

Artistic works,
navigationalsystems,
architecturaldesigns,
inventions

Crafts, athletic 
performances,
dramaticworks,
dance forms,
sculpture 

Writtennotationsfound dating to30,000 yearsago

Early numbersystems andcalendarsfound

Cave drawings

Evidence ofearly tool use 

Apes abilityto name

Beescalculatedistancesthrough theirdances

Territorial 
instinctof severalspecies

Tool use of 
primates,
anteaters,
and otherspecies 

Oraltransmissionmore importantbefore printingpress

More importantwith infl uence 
of computers

More importantwith adventof video andother visualtechnologies

Was more 
important inagrarian period 

1.1MI Theory Summary ChartIntelligence CoreComponents 
SymbolSystems 
High End-
States 
Linguistic Sensitivity to thesounds, struc-
ture, meanings,
and functionsof words andlanguage 
Phoneticlanguages(e.g., English) 
Writer, orator 
(e.g., Virginia 
Woolf, Martin 
Luther King Jr.) 
Logical-
Mathematical 
Sensitivity to,
and capacity todiscern, logical 
or numericalpatterns; abil-
ity to handlelong chains ofreasoning 
Computerlanguages(e.g., Basic) 
Scientist,
mathematician(e.g., Madame 
Curie, Blaise 
Pascal) 
Spatial Capacity toperceive thevisual-spatialworld accuratelyand to performtransformationson ones initial 
perceptions 
Ideographiclanguages(e.g., Chinese) 
Artist, architect 
(e.g., Frida 
Kahlo, I. M. Pei) 
Bodily-
Kinesthetic 
Ability to controlones body 
movements andto handle ob-
jects skillfully 
Signlanguages,
Braille* 
Athlete, dancer,
sculptor (e.g.,
Martha Graham,
Auguste Rodin) 
NeurologicalSystems(Primary 
Areas) 
DevelopmentalFactors 
Ways that 
CulturesValue 
EvolutionaryOrigins 
Presencein OtherSpecies 
HistoricalFactors 
(Relative toCurrentU.S. Status) 
Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom10 

Musical Ability toproduce andappreciaterhythm, pitch,
and timbre;
appreciationof the forms ofmusical expressiveness 
Musicalnotationalsystems,
Morse Code 
Composer,
performer (e.g.,
Stevie Wonder,
Midori) 
Interpersonal Capacity todiscern andrespond appropriately 
tothe moods,
temperaments,
motivations, and 
desires of otherpeople 
Social cues(e.g., gestures 
and facialexpressions) 
Counselor,
political leader(e.g., Carl 
Rogers, Nelson 
Mandela) 
Intrapersonal Access to ones 
own feeling
life and the ability 
to discriminate 
amongones emotions; 
knowledgeof ones own 
strengths andweaknesses 
Symbols ofthe self (e.g.,
in dreams andartwork) 
Psychotherapist,
religious leader(e.g., Sigmund 
Freud, the 
Buddha) 
Naturalist Expertise indistinguishing 
amongmembers ofa species;
recognizing theexistence ofother neighboring 
species;
and chartingout the relations, 
formally 
or informally,
among severalspecies 
Speciesclassifi cation 
systems (e.g.,
Linnaeus),
habitat maps 
Naturalist,
biologist, animal 
activist (e.g.,
CharlesDarwin, E. O.
Wilson,
Jane Goodall)

*Recent research suggests that many sign languages, such as American Sign Language, have a strongly linguistic basis as well (see, for example, Sacks, 1990). 

Right temporallobe

Frontal lobes,
temporal lobe(especially righthemisphere),
limbic system

Frontal lobes,
parietal lobes,
limbic system

Areas of leftparietal lobeimportant fordiscriminatingliving from 
nonliving
things 

Earliest intelligenceto develop;
prodigies oftengo throughdevelopmentalcrisis

Attachment/
bonding during fi rst 
3 years critical

Formation ofboundary between 
self and other
during fi rst 3 years 
critical

Shows updramatically insome youngchildren; schoolingor experienceincreases formal orinformal expertise 

Musicalcompositions,
performances,
recordings

Politicaldocuments,
socialinstitutions

Religioussystems,
psychologicaltheories, rites 
of passage

Folktaxonomies,
herbal lore,
huntingrituals,
animal spiritmythologies 

Evidenceof musicalinstrumentsback to StoneAge

Communalliving groupsrequiredfor hunting/
gathering

Early evidenceof religious life

Early huntingtools revealunderstandingof otherspecies 

Bird song

Maternalbondingobserved in 
primates andother species

Chimpanzeescan locateself inmirror; apesexperiencefear

Huntinginstinct ininnumerablespecies todiscriminatebetween preyand nonprey 

Was more 
importantduring oralculture, when 
communicationwas moremusical innature

More importantwith increasein service 
economy

Continues to beimportant withincreasinglycomplex societyrequiringchoice-making

Was more 
importantduring agrarianperiod; thenfell out offavor duringindustrialexpansion;
now earth-
smarts are 
more importantthan everto preserve 
endangeredecosystems 

The Foundations of MI Theory 

11 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

was only 4 years old when he began to compose. Numerous composers and 
performers have been active well into their 80s and 90s, so expertise in musical 
composition also seems to remain relatively robust into old age. 

Higher mathematical expertise appears to have a somewhat different 
trajectory. It doesnt emerge as early as music composition ability (4-yearolds 
do not create new logical principles), but it does peak relatively early 
in life. Many great mathematical and scientific ideas were developed by 
teenagers such as Blaise Pascal and Karl Friedrich Gauss. In fact, a review of 
the history of mathematical ideas suggests that few original mathematical 
insights come to people past the age of 40. Once people reach this age, 
theyre considered over the hill as higher mathematicians! Most of us can 
breathe a sigh of relief, however, because this decline generally does not 
seem to affect more pragmatic skills such as balancing a checkbook. 

One can become a successful novelist at age 40, 50, or even later. Nobel 
Prizewinner in literature Toni Morrison didnt publish her first novel until 
she was 39. One can even be over 75 and choose to become a painter: 
Grandma Moses did. Gardner points out that we need to use several different 
developmental maps in order to understand the eight intelligences. 
Piaget provides a comprehensive map for logical-mathematical intelligence, 
but we may need to go to Erik Erikson for a map of the development of the 
personal intelligences, and to Noam Chomsky or Lev Vygotsky for developmental 
models of linguistic intelligence. Figure 1.1 includes a summary of 
developmental trajectories for each intelligence. 

Gardner (1993b) points out that we can best see the intelligences working 
at their zenith by studying the end-states of intelligences in the lives of 
truly exceptional individuals. For example, we can see musical intelligence 
at work by studying Beethovens Eroica Symphony, the naturalist intelligence 
through Darwins theory of evolution, or spatial intelligence via Michelangelos 
Sistine Chapel paintings. Figure 1.1 includes examples of end-states for 
each intelligence. 

An Evolutionary History and Evolutionary Plausibility 

Gardner concludes that each of the eight intelligences meets the test of 
having its roots deeply embedded in the evolution of human beings and, even 
earlier, in the evolution of other species. So, for example, spatial intelligence 


The Foundations of MI Theory 

can be studied in the cave drawings of Lascaux, as well as in the way certain 
insects orient themselves in space while tracking flowers. Similarly, musical 
intelligence can be traced back to archaeological evidence of early musical 
instruments, as well as through the wide variety of bird songs. Figure 1.1 
includes notes on the evolutionary origins of the intelligences. 

MI theory also has a historical context. Certain intelligences seem to have 
been more important in earlier times than they are today. Naturalist and 
bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, for example, were probably valued more 100 
years ago in the United States, when a majority of the population lived in rural 
settings and the ability to hunt, harvest grain, and build silos had strong 
social approbation. Similarly, certain intelligences may become more important 
in the future. As more and more people receive their information from 
films, television, DVDs, and online sources, the value placed on having a 
strong spatial intelligence may increase. Similarly, there is now a growing 
need for individuals who have expertise in the naturalist intelligence to help 
protect endangered ecosystems. Figure 1.1 notes some of the historical factors 
that have influenced the perceived value of each intelligence. 

Support from Psychometric Findings 

Standardized measures of human ability provide the test that most 
theories of intelligence (as well as many learning-style theories) use to 
ascertain the validity of a model. Although Gardner is no champion of standardized 
tests, and in fact has been an ardent supporter of alternatives to 
formal testing (see Chapter 10), he suggests that we can look at many existing 
standardized tests for support of the theory of multiple intelligences 
(although Gardner would point out that standardized tests assess multiple 
intelligences in a strikingly decontextualized fashion). For example, the 
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children includes subtests that require linguistic 
intelligence (e.g., information, vocabulary), logical-mathematical intelligence 
(e.g., arithmetic), spatial intelligence (e.g., picture arrangement), 
and to a lesser extent bodily-kinesthetic intelligence (e.g., object assembly). 
Still other assessments tap personal intelligences (e.g., the Vineland 
Society Maturity Scale and the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory). Chapter 
3 includes a survey of the types of formal tests associated with each of 
the eight intelligences. 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

Support from Experimental Psychological Tasks 

Gardner suggests that by looking at specific psychological studies, we 
can witness intelligences working in isolation from one another. For example, 
in studies where subjects master a specific skill, such as reading, but fail 
to transfer that ability to another area, such as mathematics, we see the 
failure of linguistic ability to transfer to logical-mathematical intelligence. 
Similarly, in studies of cognitive abilities such as memory, perception, or 
attention, we can see evidence that individuals possess selective abilities. 
Certain individuals, for instance, may have a superior memory for words but 
not for faces; others may have acute perception of musical sounds but not 
verbal sounds. Each of these cognitive faculties, then, is intelligence-specific; 
that is, people can demonstrate different levels of proficiency across the 
eight intelligences in each cognitive area. 

An Identifiable Core Operation or Set of Operations 

Gardner says that much as a computer program requires a set of operations 
(e.g., DOS) in order for it to function, each intelligence has a set of core 
operations that serve to drive the various activities indigenous to that intelligence. 
In musical intelligence, for example, those components may include 
sensitivity to pitch or the ability to discriminate among various rhythmic 
structures. In bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, core operations may include 
the ability to imitate the physical movements of others or the capacity to 
master established fine-motor routines for building a structure. Gardner 
speculates that these core operations may someday be identified with such 
precision as to be simulated on a computer. 

Susceptibility to Encoding in a Symbol System 

According to Gardner, one of the best indicators of intelligent behavior 
is the ability to use symbols. The word cat that appears here on the page 
is simply a collection of marks printed in a specific way, yet it probably conjures 
up for you an entire range of associations, images, and memories. 
What has occurred is the bringing to the present (re-present-ation) of 
something that is not actually here. Gardner suggests that the ability to 
symbolize is one of the most important factors separating humans from 
most other species. He notes that each of the eight intelligences in his theory 
meets the criterion of being able to be symbolized. Each intelligence, in 


The Foundations of MI Theory 

fact, has its own unique symbol or notational systems. For linguistic intelligence, 
there are a number of spoken and written languages such as English, 
French, and Spanish. For spatial intelligence, there is a range of graphic languages 
used by architects, engineers, and designers, as well as certain partially 
ideographic languages such as Chinese. Figure 1.1 includes examples 
of symbol systems for all eight intelligences. 

Key Points in MI Theory 

Beyond the descriptions of the eight intelligences and their theoretical 
underpinnings, certain points of the MI model are important to remember: 

Each person possesses all eight intelligences. MI theory is not a type 
theory for determining the one intelligence that fits. It is a theory of cognitive 
functioning, and it proposes that each person has capacities in all eight 
intelligences. Of course, the eight intelligences function together in ways 
unique to each person. Some people appear to possess extremely high 
levels of functioning in all or most of the eight intelligencesfor example, 
German poet-statesman-scientist-naturalist-philosopher Johann Wolfgang von 
Goethe. Other people, such as certain severely impaired individuals in institutions 
for the developmentally disabled, appear to lack all but the most 
rudimentary aspects of the intelligences. Most of us fall somewhere in 
between these two polesbeing highly developed in some intelligences, 
modestly developed in others, and relatively underdeveloped in the rest. 

Most people can develop each intelligence to an adequate level of 
competency. Although individuals may bewail their deficiencies in a given 
area and consider their problems innate and intractable, Gardner suggests 
that virtually everyone has the capacity to develop all eight intelligences 
to a reasonably high level of performance if given the appropriate encouragement, 
enrichment, and instruction. He points to the Suzuki Talent 
Education Program as an example of how individuals of relatively modest 
biological musical endowment can achieve a sophisticated level of proficiency 
in playing the violin or piano through a combination of the right 
environmental influences (e.g., an involved parent, exposure from infancy 
to classical music, and early instruction). Such educational models can be 
found in other intelligences as well (see, for example, Edwards, 1989, for a 
method that improves ones spatial abilities through drawing). 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

Intelligences usually work together in complex ways. Gardner points 
out that each intelligence as described above is actually a fiction; that is, 
no intelligence exists by itself in life (except perhaps in very rare instances 
in savants and brain-injured individuals). Intelligences are always interacting 
with each other. To cook a meal, one must read the recipe (linguistic), 
perhaps double the recipe (logical-mathematical), develop a menu that satisfies 
all members of the family (interpersonal), and placate ones own appetite 
as well (intrapersonal). Similarly, when a child plays a game of kickball, 
she needs bodily-kinesthetic intelligence (to run, kick, and catch), spatial 
intelligence (to orient herself to the playing field and to anticipate the trajectories 
of flying balls), and linguistic and interpersonal intelligences (to successfully 
argue a point during a dispute in the game). The intelligences have 
been taken out of context in MI theory only for the purpose of examining 
their essential features and learning how to use them effectively. We must 
always remember to put them back into their specific culturally valued contexts 
when we are finished with their formal study. 

There are many ways to be intelligent within each category. There is 
no standard set of attributes that one must have to be considered intelligent 
in a specific area. Consequently, a person may not be able to read, yet be 
highly linguistic because he can tell a terrific story or has a large oral vocabulary. 
Similarly, a person may be quite awkward on the playing field, yet 
possess superior bodily-kinesthetic intelligence when she weaves a carpet 
or creates an inlaid chess table. MI theory emphasizes the rich diversity of 
ways in which people show their gifts within intelligences as well as between 
intelligences. (See Chapter 3 for more information on the varieties of attributes 
in each intelligence.) 

The Existence of Other Intelligences 

Gardner points out that his model is a tentative formulation; after further 
research and investigation, some of the intelligences on his list may not meet 
certain of the eight criteria described above and therefore may no longer 
qualify as intelligences. However, we may identify new intelligences that do 
meet the various tests. In fact, Gardner has acted on this belief by adding a 
new intelligencethe naturalistafter deciding that it fits each of the eight 
criteria. His consideration of a ninth intelligencethe existentialis also 


The Foundations of MI Theory 

based upon its meeting most of the criteria (see Chapter 14 for a detailed 
discussion of the existential intelligence). Other intelligences that have been 
proposed by individuals other than Gardner include spirituality, moral sensibility, 
humor, intuition, creativity, culinary (cooking) ability, olfactory perception 
(sense of smell), an ability to synthesize the other intelligences, and 
mechanical ability. It remains to be seen whether these proposed intelligences 
can, in fact, meet each of the eight tests described above. 

The Relationship of MI Theory 
to Other Intelligence Theories 

Gardners theory of multiple intelligences is certainly not the first model to 
grapple with the notion of intelligence. There have been theories of intelligence 
since ancient times, when the mind was considered to reside somewhere 
in the heart, the liver, or the kidneys. In more recent times, theories 
of intelligence have emerged touting anywhere from 1 (Spearmans g) to 
150 (Guilfords Structure of the Intellect) types of intelligence. 

A growing number of learning-style theories also deserve to be mentioned 
here. Gardner has sought to differentiate the theory of multiple intelligences 
from the concept of learning style. He writes: The concept of 
style designates a general approach that an individual can apply equally to 
every conceivable content. In contrast, an intelligence is a capacity, with its 
component processes, that is geared to a specific content in the world (such 
as musical sounds or spatial patterns) (Gardner, 1995, pp. 202203). There 
is no clear evidence yet, according to Gardner, that a person highly developed 
in spatial intelligence, for example, will show that capacity in every 
aspect of his or her life (e.g., washing the car spatially, reflecting on ideas 
spatially, socializing spatially, etc.). He suggests that this task remains to be 
empirically investigated. (For an example of an attempt in this direction, see 
Silver, Strong, & Perini, 1997.) 

Still, it is tempting to want to relate MI theory to any of a number of 
learning-style theories that have gained prominence in the past two decades, 
since learners expand their knowledge base by linking new information 
(in this case, MI theory) to existing schemes or models (the learning-style 
model with which theyre most familiar). This task is not so easy, however, 
partly because of what weve suggested above and partly because MI theory 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

has a different type of underlying structure than do many of the most current 
learning-style theories. MI theory is a cognitive model that seeks to 
describe how individuals use their intelligences to solve problems and fashion 
products. Unlike other models that are primarily process oriented, 
Gardners approach is particularly geared to how the human mind operates 
on the contents of the world (e.g., objects, persons, numerical patterns, etc.). 
A seemingly related theory, the Visual-Auditory-Kinesthetic model, is actually 
very different from MI theory, in that it is a sensory-channel model. (MI 
theory is not specifically tied to the senses; it is possible to be blind and 
have spatial intelligence or to be deaf and be quite musicalas is the case, 
for example, with the world-renowned percussionist Evelyn Glennie.) 
Another popular theory, the Myers-Briggs model, is actually a personality 
theory based on Carl Jungs theoretical formulation of different types of 
personalities. To attempt to correlate MI theory with models like these is 
akin to comparing apples with oranges. Although we can identify relationships 
and connections, our efforts may resemble those of the blind men and 
the elephant: each model touching upon a different aspect of the whole 
learner. 

For Further Study 


1. Form a study group on MI theory using Howard Gardners seminal 
book Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences10th Anniversary 
Edition (1993a) as a text. Each member can be responsible for reading and 
reporting on a specific chapter. For an example of how a multiple intelligences 
school arose from such a study group, see Hoerr (2000). 
2. Use Gardners comprehensive bibliography on MI theory found in his 
books Multiple Intelligences: New Horizons in Theory and Practice (2006) and 
Intelligence Reframed: Multiple Intelligences for the 21st Century (1999) as a 
basis for reading more widely about the model. 
3. Propose the existence of a new intelligence and apply Gardners eight 
criteria to see if it qualifies for inclusion in MI theory. 
4. Collect examples of symbol systems in each intelligence. Robert 
McKims book Experiences in Visual Thinking (1980) contains examples of several 
spatial languages used by designers, architects, artists, and inventors, 

The Foundations of MI Theory 

and you can consult books on music history that provide examples of earlier 
systems of musical notation. 

5. Read about savants in each intelligence. Some of the footnoted entries 
in Gardners Frames of Mind identify sources of information on savants in 
logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, linguistic, and bodily-kinesthetic intelligences. 
In addition, the work of neurologist Oliver Sacks (1985, 1995) provides 
engagingly written case studies of savants and other individuals with 
specific brain damage that has affected their intelligences in intriguing ways. 
6. Relate MI theory to a learning-style model (e.g., V-A-K-T, Myers-Briggs, 
Dunn and Dunn, etc.). 

2 

MI Theory and 
Personal Development 

What kind of school plan you make is neither here nor there; what matters is what 
sort of a person you are. 

Rudolf Steiner 

Before applying any model of learning in a classroom environment, we 
should first apply it to ourselves as educators and adult learners, for unless 
we have an experiential understanding of the theory and have personalized 
its content, we are unlikely to be committed to using it with students. Consequently, 
an important step in using the theory of multiple intelligences 
(after grasping the basic theoretical foundations presented in Chapter 1) is 
to determine the nature and quality of our own multiple intelligences and 
seek ways to develop them in our lives. As we begin to do this, it will become 
apparent how our particular fluency (or lack of fluency) in each of the eight 
intelligences affects our competence (or lack of competence) in the various 
roles we have as educators. 

20 


MI Theory and Personal Development 

Identifying Your Multiple Intelligences 

As you will see in the later chapters on student assessment (Chapters 3 and 
10), developing a profile of a persons multiple intelligences is not a simple 
matter. No test can accurately determine the nature or quality of a persons 
intelligences. As Howard Gardner has repeatedly pointed out, standardized 
tests measure only a small part of the total spectrum of abilities. The best 
way to assess your own multiple intelligences, therefore, is through a realistic 
appraisal of your performance in the many kinds of tasks, activities, and 
experiences associated with each intelligence. Rather than perform several 
artificial learning tasks, look back over the kinds of real-life experiences 
youve already had involving these eight intelligences. The MI inventory in 
Figure 2.1 can assist you in doing this. 

Its important to keep in mind that this inventory is not a test and that 
quantitative information (such as the number of checks for each intelligence) 
has no bearing on determining your intelligence or lack of intelligence 
in each category. The purpose of the inventory is to begin to connect 
you to your own life experiences with the eight intelligences. What sorts of 
memories, feelings, and ideas emerge from this process? 

Tapping MI Resources 

The theory of multiple intelligences is an especially good model for looking at 
teaching strengths as well as for examining areas needing improvement. Perhaps 
you avoid drawing pictures on the blackboard or stay away from using 
highly graphic materials in your presentations because spatial intelligence is 
not particularly well developed in your life. Or possibly you gravitate toward 
cooperative learning strategies or ecological activities because you are an 
interpersonal or naturalist sort of learner/teacher yourself. Use MI theory to 
survey your own teaching style, and see how it matches up with the eight 
intelligences. While you dont have to be a master in all eight intelligences, 
you probably should know how to tap resources in the intelligences you typically 
shy away from in the classroom. Here are some ways to do this: 

Draw on colleagues expertise. If you dont have ideas for bringing 
music into the classroom because your musical intelligence is undeveloped, 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

2.1 
An MI Inventory for Adults 
Check those statements that apply in each intelligence category. Space has been provided at the end of 
each intelligence for you to write additional information not specifically referred to in the inventory items. 
Linguistic Intelligence 
___ Books are very important to me. 
___ I can hear words in my head before I read, speak, or write them down. 
___ I get more out of listening to the radio or a spoken-word recording than I do from television or films. 
___ I enjoy word games like Scrabble, Anagrams, or Password. 
___ I enjoy entertaining myself or others with tongue twisters, nonsense rhymes, or puns. 
___ Other people sometimes have to stop and ask me to explain the meaning of the words I use in my 
writing and speaking. 
___ English, social studies, and history were easier for me in school than math and science. 
___ Learning to speak or read another language (e.g., French, Spanish, German) has been relatively 
easy for me. 
___ My conversation includes frequent references to things that Ive read or heard. 
___ Ive written something recently that I was particularly proud of or that earned me recognition from 
others. 
Other Linguistic Abilities: 
Logical-Mathematical Intelligence 
___ I can easily compute numbers in my head. 
___ Math and/or science were among my favorite subjects in school. 
___ I enjoy playing games or solving brainteasers that require logical thinking. 
___ I like to set up little what if experiments (for example, What if I double the amount of water I 
give to my rosebush each week?) 
___ My mind searches for patterns, regularities, or logical sequences in things. 
___ Im interested in new developments in science. 
___ I believe that almost everything has a rational explanation. 
___ I sometimes think in clear, abstract, wordless, imageless concepts. 


MI Theory and Personal Development 

___ I like finding logical flaws in things that people say and do at home and work. 
___ I feel more comfortable when something has been measured, categorized, analyzed, 
or quantified in some way. 


Other Logical-Mathematical Abilities: 

Spatial Intelligence 

___ I often see clear visual images when I close my eyes. 
___ Im sensitive to color. 
___ I frequently use a camera or camcorder to record what I see around me. 
___ I enjoy doing jigsaw puzzles, mazes, and other visual puzzles. 
___ I have vivid dreams at night. 
___ I can generally find my way around unfamiliar territory. 
___ I like to draw or doodle. 
___ Geometry was easier for me than algebra in school. 
___ I can comfortably imagine how something might appear if it were looked down on from directly 


above in a birds-eye view. 
___ I prefer looking at reading material that is heavily illustrated. 


Other Spatial Abilities: 

Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence 

___ I engage in at least one sport or physical activity on a regular basis. 
___ I find it difficult to sit still for long periods of time. 
___ I like working with my hands at concrete activities such as sewing, weaving, carving, carpentry, 


or model building. 

(continued) 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

2.1 
An MI Inventory for Adults (continued) 
___ My best ideas often come to me when Im out for a long walk or a jog or when Im engaging in 
some other kind of physical activity. 
___ I often like to spend my free time outdoors. 
___ I frequently use hand gestures or other forms of body language when conversing with someone. 
___ I need to touch things in order to learn more about them. 
___ I enjoy daredevil amusement rides or similar thrilling physical experiences. 
___ I would describe myself as well coordinated. 
___ I need to practice a new skill rather than simply reading about it or seeing a video that describes it. 
Other Bodily-Kinesthetic Abilities: 
Musical Intelligence 
___ I have a pleasant singing voice. 
___ I can tell when a musical note is off-key. 
___ I frequently listen to music on radio, records, cassettes, or compact discs. 
___ I play a musical instrument. 
___ My life would be poorer if there were no music in it. 
___ I sometimes catch myself walking down the street with a television jingle or other tune running 
through my mind. 
___ I can easily keep time to a piece of music with a simple percussion instrument. 
___ I know the tunes to many different songs or musical pieces. 
___ If I hear a musical selection once or twice, I am usually able to sing it back fairly accurately. 
___ I often make tapping sounds or sing little melodies while working, studying, or learning 
something new. 
Other Musical Abilities: 


MI Theory and Personal Development 

Interpersonal Intelligence 

___ Im the sort of person that people come to for advice and counsel at work or in my neighborhood. 
___ I prefer group sports like badminton, volleyball, or softball to solo sports such as swimming and 
jogging. 
___ When I have a problem, Im more likely to seek out another person for help than attempt to work 

it out on my own. 
___ I have at least three close friends. 
___ I favor social pastimes such as Monopoly or bridge over individual recreations such as video 

games and solitaire. 
___ I enjoy the challenge of teaching another person, or groups of people, what I know how to do. 
___ I consider myself a leader (or others have called me that). 
___ I feel comfortable in the midst of a crowd. 
___ I like to get involved in social activities connected with my work, church, or community. 
___ I would rather spend my evenings at a lively party than stay at home alone. 

Other Interpersonal Abilities: 

Intrapersonal Intelligence 

___ I regularly spend time alone meditating, reflecting, or thinking about important life questions. 
___ I have attended counseling sessions or personal growth seminars to learn more about myself. 
___ I am able to respond to setbacks with resilience. 
___ I have a special hobby or interest that I keep pretty much to myself. 
___ I have some important goals for my life that I think about on a regular basis. 
___ I have a realistic view of my strengths and weaknesses (borne out by feedback from other sources). 
___ I would prefer to spend a weekend alone in a cabin in the woods rather than at a fancy resort 


with lots of people around. 
___ I consider myself to be strong willed or independent minded. 
___ I keep a personal diary or journal to record the events of my inner life. 
___ I am self-employed or have at least thought seriously about starting my own business. 


Other Intrapersonal Abilities: 

(continued) 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

2.1 
An MI Inventory for Adults (continued) 
Naturalist Intelligence 
___ I like to spend time backpacking, hiking, or just walking in nature. 
___ I belong to some kind of volunteer organization related to nature (e.g., Sierra Club), and Im 
concerned about helping to save nature from further destruction. 
___ I thrive on having animals around the house. 
___ Im involved in a hobby that involves nature in some way (e.g., bird watching). 
___ Ive enrolled in courses relating to nature at community centers or colleges (e.g., botany, zoology). 
___ Im quite good at telling the difference between different kinds of trees, dogs, birds, or other types 
of flora or fauna. 
___ I like to read books and magazines or watch television shows or movies that feature nature in 
some way. 
___ When on vacation, I prefer to go off to a natural setting (park, campground, hiking trail) rather 
than to a hotel/resort or city/cultural location. 
___ I love to visit zoos, aquariums, or other places where the natural world is studied. 
___ I have a garden and enjoy working regularly in it. 
Other Naturalist Abilities: 

consider getting help from the schools music teacher or a musically inclined 
colleague. The theory of multiple intelligences has broad implications for 
team teaching. In a school committed to developing students multiple intelligences, 
the ideal teaching team or curriculum planning committee includes 
expertise in all eight intelligences; that is, each member possesses a high 
level of competence in a specific intelligence. 

Ask students to help out. Students can often come up with strategies 
and demonstrate expertise in areas where your own knowledge may 


MI Theory and Personal Development 

be deficient. For example, students may be able to do some picture drawing 
on the board, provide musical background for a learning activity, or share 
knowledge about lizards, insects, flowers, or other fauna or flora, if you 
dont feel comfortable or competent doing these things yourself. 

Use available technology. Tap your schools technical resources to convey 
information you might not be able to provide through your own efforts. 
For instance, you can use tape recordings of music if youre not musical, 
videotapes if youre not picture-oriented, calculators and self-paced computer 
software to supplement your shortcomings in logical-mathematical 
areas, and so on. 

The final way to come to grips with intelligences that seem to be blind 
spots in your life is through a process of careful cultivation or personal 
development of your intelligences. MI theory provides a model through 
which you can activate your neglected intelligences and balance your use of 
all the intelligences. 

Developing Your Multiple Intelligences 

Ive been careful not to use the terms strong intelligence and weak intelligence 
in describing individual differences among a persons intelligences, 
because a persons weak intelligence may actually turn out to be her strongest 
intelligence, once it is given the chance to develop. As mentioned in 
Chapter 1, a key point in MI theory is that most people can develop all their 
intelligences to a relatively acceptable level of mastery. Whether an intelligence 
can develop depends upon three main factors: 

1. 
Biological endowmentincluding hereditary or genetic factors and 
insults or injuries to the brain before, during, and after birth 
2. 
Personal life historyincluding experiences with parents, teachers, 
peers, friends, and others who awaken intelligences, keep them from 
developing, or actively repress them 
3. 
Cultural and historical backgroundincluding the time and place in 
which you were born and raised and the nature and state of cultural 
or historical developments in different domains 
We can see the interaction of these factors in the life of Wolfgang Amadeus 
Mozart. Mozart undoubtedly came into life already possessing a strong 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

biological endowment (a highly developed right temporal lobe, perhaps). 
And he was born into a family of musical individuals; in fact, his father, Leopold, 
was a composer who gave up his own career to support his sons musical 
development. Finally, Mozart was born at a time in Europe when the arts 
(including music) were flourishing and wealthy patrons supported composers 
and performers. Mozarts genius, therefore, arose through a confluence 
of biological, personal, and cultural/historical factors. What would have 
happened if Mozart had been born to tone-deaf parents in Puritan England, 
where most music was considered the devils work? His musical gifts likely 
would never have developed to a high level because of the forces working 
against his biological endowment. 

The interaction of the above factors is also evident in the musical proficiency 
of many of the children who have been enrolled in the Suzuki Talent 
Education Program. Although some Suzuki students may be born with a relatively 
modest genetic musical endowment, they are able to develop their 
musical intelligence to a high level through experiences in the program. MI 
theory is a model that values nurture as much as, and in some ways more 
than, nature in accounting for the development of intelligences. 

Activators and Deactivators of Intelligences 

Crystallizing experiences and paralyzing experiences are two key processes 
in the development of intelligences. Crystallizing experiences, a concept 
originating with David Feldman (1980) at Tufts University and further developed 
by Howard Gardner and his colleagues (Walters & Gardner, 1986), are 
the turning points in the development of a persons talents and abilities. 
Often these events occur in early childhood, although they can occur anytime 
during the life span. For instance, when Albert Einstein was 4 years old, 
his father showed him a magnetic compass. The adult Einstein later said this 
compass filled him with a desire to figure out the mysteries of the universe. 
Essentially, this experience activated his genius and started him on his journey 
toward discoveries that would make him one of the towering figures in 
20th-century thought. Similarly, when Yehudi Menuhin was almost 4 years 
old, his parents took him to a concert by the San Francisco Symphony 
Orchestra. The experience so enthralled him that afterward he asked his 
parents for a violin as a birthday present, and he said he wanted the violin 


MI Theory and Personal Development 

soloist they heard that evening to teach him to play it! Crystallizing experiences, 
then, are the sparks that light an intelligence and start its development 
toward maturity. 

Conversely, I use the term paralyzing experiences to refer to experiences 
that shut down intelligences. Perhaps a teacher humiliated you in front of 
your classmates when you showed your drawing during art period, and that 
event marked the end of a good part of your artistic development. Possibly 
a parent yelled at you to stop making a racket on the piano, and you never 
went near a musical instrument after that. Or maybe you were punished for 
bringing your messy leaf collection into the house, without any acknowledgment 
of the spark of the naturalist that you might have displayed. Paralyzing 
experiences are often filled with shame, guilt, fear, anger, and other 
negative emotions that prevent our intelligences from growing and thriving 
(Miller, 1981). 

The following environmental influences also promote or suppress the 
development of intelligences: 

 
Access to resources or mentorsIf your family was so poor that you 
couldnt afford a violin, piano, or other instrument, your musical intelligence 
might well have remained undeveloped. 
 
Historical-cultural factorsIf you were a student who demonstrated 
proclivities in mathematics at a time when math and science programs 
were highly funded, your logical-mathematical intelligence would 
likely have developed. 
 
Geographic factorsIf you grew up on a farm, you might well have had 
more opportunity to develop certain aspects of the naturalist intelligence 
than if you were raised on the 62nd floor of a Manhattan apartment 
building. 
 
Familial factorsIf you wanted to be an artist but your parents wanted 
you to be a lawyer, their influence might well have promoted the 
development of your linguistic intelligence at the expense of your spatial 
intelligence. 
 
Situational factorsIf you had to help take care of a large family while 
you were growing up, and you now have a large family yourself, you 
may have had little time to develop in areas of promiseunless they 
were interpersonal in nature. 

Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

MI theory offers a model of personal development that can help educators 
understand how their own profile of intelligences affects their teaching 
approaches in the classroom. Further, it opens the gate to a broad range of 
activities that can help us develop neglected intelligences, activate underdeveloped 
or paralyzed intelligences, and bring well-developed intelligences to 
even higher levels of proficiency. 

For Further Study 


1. Fill out the inventory in this chapter. Talk with a friend or colleague 
about the results of the inventory. Make sure to share something about what 
you perceive as your most developed intelligences and your least developed 
intelligences. Avoid talking in terms of quantitative information (e.g., I had 
only three checks in musical intelligence). Speak instead in anecdotal terms 
(e.g., Ive never felt very musical in my life; my classmates used to laugh at 
me when I had to sing solo in music class). 
Also, begin to reflect upon how your developed and undeveloped intelligences 
affect what you put into, or keep out of, your work as an educator. 
What kinds of teaching methods or materials do you avoid because 
they involve using your underdeveloped intelligences? What sorts of things 
are you especially good at doing because of one or more highly developed 
intelligences? 

2. Select an intelligence that you would like to nurture. It may be an 
intelligence you showed particular promise in as a child but never had the 
opportunity to develop (the intelligence may have gone underground as 
you grew up). Perhaps it is an intelligence you have had great difficulty with 
or one in which you would like to experience more competence and confidence. 
Or, possibly, its a highly developed intelligence that you want to take 
to an even higher level. Rolling out a piece of mural paper perhaps five or 
six feet in length, create a time line showing the development of that intelligence 
from early childhood to the present. Note significant events along 
the way, including crystallizing and paralyzing experiences, people who 
helped you develop the intelligence (or sought to suppress it), school influences, 
what happened to the intelligence as you became an adult, and so 
forth. Leave space on the time line to include information about the future 
development of the intelligence (see Study Item 4 below). 

MI Theory and Personal Development 

3. Create a curriculum planning team or other school group that consists 
of individuals representing each of the eight intelligences. Before beginning 
the planning work, take time to share your personal experiences of 
your most highly developed intelligence. 
4. Select an intelligence that is not very highly developed in your life and 
create a plan for cultivating it. Look over suggestions for developing the 
intelligences in 7 Kinds of Smart (Armstrong, 1999a), or create your own list 
of ways to nurture each intelligence. As you begin personally developing an 
intelligence, notice whether this process influences what you do in the classroom. 
Are you bringing more aspects of that intelligence into your professional 
work? 

3 

Describing Intelligences 
in Students 

Hide not your talents 
For use they were made. 
Whats a sundial in the shade! 


Ben Franklin 

Although its true that each child possesses all eight intelligences and can 
develop all eight to a reasonable level of competence, children begin showing 
what Howard Gardner calls proclivities (or inclinations) toward specific 
intelligences from a very early age. By the time children begin school, 
they have probably established ways of learning that run more along the 
lines of some intelligences than others. In this chapter, we will examine how 
you can begin to describe students most developed intelligences so that 
more of their learning in school can take place through their preferred 
intelligences. 

Figure 3.1 provides brief descriptions of the capacities of children who 
display proclivities in specific intelligences. Keep in mind, however, that 
most students have strengths in several areas, so you should avoid pigeonholing 
a child in only one intelligence. You will probably find each student 
pictured in two or more of these intelligence descriptions. 

32 


Describing Intelligences in Students 

3.1 
Eight Ways of Learning 
Children who 
are highly . . . 
Think . . . Love . . . Need . . . 
Linguistic in words reading, writing, telling 
stories, playing word 
games 
books, tapes, writing tools, paper, 
diaries, dialogue, discussion, debate, 
stories 
Logical-
Mathematical 
by reasoning experimenting, 
questioning, figuring 
out logical puzzles, 
calculating 
materials to experiment with, 
science materials, manipulatives, 
trips to planetariums and science 
museums 
Spatial in images 
and pictures 
designing, drawing, 
visualizing, doodling 
art, Legos, videos, movies, slides, 
imagination games, mazes, puzzles, 
illustrated books, trips to art 
museums 
Bodily-
Kinesthetic 
through somatic 
sensations 
dancing, running, 
jumping, building, 
touching, gesturing 
role-play, drama, movement, building 
things, sports and physical games, 
tactile experiences, hands-on 
learning 
Musical via rhythms and 
melodies 
singing, whistling, 
humming, tapping feet 
and hands, listening 
sing-along time, trips to concerts, 
playing music at home and school, 
musical instruments 
Interpersonal by bouncing ideas 
off other people 
leading, organizing, 
relating, manipulating, 
mediating, partying 
friends, group games, social 
gatherings, community events, clubs, 
mentors/apprenticeships 
Intrapersonal in relation to their 
needs, feelings, 
and goals 
setting goals, 
meditating, dreaming, 
planning, reflecting 
secret places, time alone, self-paced 
projects, choices 
Naturalist through nature 
and natural forms 
playing with pets, 
gardening, investigating 
nature, raising animals, 
caring for planet earth 
access to nature, opportunities for 
interacting with animals, tools for 
investigating nature (e.g., magnifying 
glasses, binoculars) 

Assessing Students Multiple Intelligences 

There is no megatest on the market that can provide a comprehensive 
survey of your students multiple intelligences. If anyone should tell you 
they have a computer-scored test that in 15 minutes can provide a bar graph 
showing the eight peaks and valleys of each student in your class or 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

school, Id suggest that you be very skeptical. This isnt to say that formal 
testing cant provide some information about a students intelligences; as I 
discuss later, it can provide clues to various intelligences. The single best 
tool for assessing students multiple intelligences, however, is probably one 
readily available to all of us: simple observation. 

Ive often humorously suggested to teachers that one good way to identify 
students most highly developed intelligences is to observe how they 
misbehave in class. The strongly linguistic student will be talking out of turn, 
the highly spatial student will be doodling and daydreaming, the interpersonally 
inclined student will be socializing, the bodily-kinesthetic student 
will be fidgeting, and the naturalistically engaged student might well bring 
an animal to class without permission! These students are metaphorically 
saying through their misbehaviors: This is how I learn, teacher, and if you 
dont teach me in the way that I most naturally learn, guess what? Im going 
to do it anyway! These intelligence-specific misbehaviors, then, are sort of 
a cry for helpa diagnostic indicator of how students want to be taught. 

Another good observational indicator of students proclivities is how 
they spend their free time in school. In other words, what do they do when 
nobody is telling them what to do? If you have a choice time in class when 
students can choose from a number of activities, what activities do students 
pick? Highly linguistic students might gravitate toward books, social students 
toward group games and gossip, spatial students toward drawing, 
bodily-kinesthetic students toward hands-on building activities, and naturalistically 
inclined students toward the gerbil cage or aquarium. Observing 
kids in these student-initiated activities can tell a world about how they 
learn most effectively. 

Every teacher should consider keeping a notebook, diary, or journal 
handy in a desk for recording observations of this kind. Of course, if youre 
working with 150 students a day at the middle or high school level, regularly 
recording observations for each student would hardly be possible. You 
might, however, single out the two or three most troublesome or puzzling 
students in class and focus your MI assessment upon them. Even if you have 
a class of 25 to 35 students, writing a couple of lines about each student each 
week may pay off in the long run. Writing two lines a week for 40 weeks yields 
80 lines, or three to four pages of solid observational data for each student. 

To help organize your observations of a students multiple intelligences, 
you can use a checklist like the one in Figure 3.2. Keep in mind that this 


Describing Intelligences in Students 

3.2 
Multiple Intelligences Checklist for Students 
Name of Student: 
Check items that apply. 
Linguistic Intelligence 
___Writes better than average for age 
___ Spins tall tales or tells jokes and stories 
___ Has a good memory for names, places, dates, or trivia 
___ Enjoys word games 
___ Enjoys reading books 
___ Spells words accurately (or if preschool, does developmental spelling that is advanced for age) 
___Appreciates nonsense rhymes, puns, tongue twisters 
___ Enjoys listening to the spoken word (stories, commentary on the radio, talking books) 
___ Has a good vocabulary for age 
___ Communicates to others in a highly verbal way 
Other Linguistic Abilities: 
Logical-Mathematical Intelligence 
___Asks a lot of questions about how things work 
___ Enjoys working or playing with numbers 
___ Enjoys math class (or if preschool, enjoys counting and doing other things with numbers) 
___ Finds math and computer games interesting (or if no exposure to computers, enjoys other math or 
science games) 
___ Enjoys playing chess, checkers, or other strategy games 
___ Enjoys working on logic puzzles or brainteasers (or if preschool, enjoys hearing logical nonsense) 
___ Enjoys putting things in categories, hierarchies, or other logical patterns 
___ Likes to do experiments in science class or in free play 
___ Shows interest in science-related subjects 
___ Does well on Piagetian-type assessments of logical thinking 
Other Logical-Mathematical Abilities: 

(continued) 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

3.2 
Multiple Intelligences Checklist for Students (continued) 
Spatial Intelligence 
___ Reports clear visual images 
___ Reads maps, charts, and diagrams more easily than text (or if preschool, enjoys looking at more 
than text) 
___ Daydreams a lot 
___ Enjoys art activities 
___ Is good at drawings 
___ Likes to view movies, slides, or other visual presentations 
___ Enjoys doing puzzles, mazes, or similar visual activities 
___ Builds interesting three-dimensional constructions (e.g., Lego buildings) 
___ Gets more out of pictures than words while reading 
___ Doodles on workbooks, worksheets, or other materials 
Other Spatial Abilities: 
Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence 
___ Excels in one or more sports (or if preschool, shows physical prowess advanced for age) 
___ Moves, twitches, taps, or fidgets while seated for a long time in one spot 
___ Cleverly mimics other peoples gestures or mannerisms 
___ Loves to take things apart and put them back together again 
___ Puts his/her hands all over something he/shes just seen 
___ Enjoys running, jumping, wrestling, or similar activities (or if older, will show these interests in a 
more restrained waye.g., running to class, jumping over a chair) 
___ Shows skill in a craft (e.g., woodworking, sewing, mechanics) or good fine-motor coordination in 
other ways 
___ Has a dramatic way of expressing herself/himself 
___ Reports different physical sensations while thinking or working 
___ Enjoys working with clay or other tactile experiences (e.g., finger painting) 
Other Bodily-Kinesthetic Abilities: 


Describing Intelligences in Students 

Musical Intelligence 

___Tells you when music sounds off-key or disturbing in some other way 

___ Remembers melodies of songs 

___ Has a good singing voice 

___ Plays a musical instrument or sings in a choir or other group (or if preschool, enjoys playing 

percussion instruments and/or singing in a group) 
___ Has a rhythmic way of speaking or moving 
___ Unconsciously hums to himself/herself 
___Taps rhythmically on the table or desk as he/she works 
___ Is sensitive to environmental noises (e.g., rain on the roof) 
___ Responds favorably when a piece of music is put on 
___ Sings songs that he/she has learned outside of the classroom 


Other Musical Abilities: 

Interpersonal Intelligence 

___ Enjoys socializing with peers 
___ Seems to be a natural leader 
___ Gives advice to friends who have problems 
___ Seems to be street-smart 
___ Belongs to clubs, committees, organizations, or informal peer groups 
___ Enjoys informally teaching other kids 
___ Likes to play games with other kids 
___ Has two or more close friends 
___ Has a good sense of empathy or concern for others 
___ Is sought out for company by others 

Other Interpersonal Abilities: 

(continued) 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

3.2 
Multiple Intelligences Checklist for Students (continued) 
Intrapersonal Intelligence 
___ Displays a sense of independence or a strong will 
___ Has a realistic sense of his/her abilities and weaknesses 
___ Does well when left alone to play or study 
___ Marches to the beat of a different drummer in his/her style of living and learning 
___ Has an interest or hobby that he/she doesnt talk much about 
___ Has a good sense of self-direction 
___ Prefers working alone to working with others 
___Accurately expresses how he/she is feeling 
___ Is able to learn from his/her failures and successes in life 
___ Has good self-esteem 
Other Intrapersonal Abilities: 
Naturalist Intelligence 
___Talks a lot about favorite pets, or preferred spots in nature, during class sharing 
___ Likes field trips in nature, to the zoo, or to a natural history museum 
___ Shows sensitivity to natural formations (e.g., while walking outside with the class, will notice 
mountains, clouds; or if in an urban environment, may show this ability in sensitivity to popular 
culture formations such as sneakers or automobile styles) 
___ Likes to water and tend to the plants in the classroom 
___ Likes to hang around the gerbil cage, the aquarium, or the terrarium in class 
___ Gets excited when studying about ecology, nature, plants, or animals 
___ Speaks out in class for the rights of animals or the preservation of planet earth 
___ Enjoys doing nature projects, such as bird watching, collecting butterflies or insects, studying 
trees, or raising animals 
___ Brings to school bugs, flowers, leaves, or other natural things to share with classmates or 
teachers 
___ Does well in topics at school that involve living systems (e.g., biological topics in science, 
environmental issues in social studies) 
Other Naturalist Abilities: 


Describing Intelligences in Students 

checklist is not a testit has not been subjected to any protocols necessary 
to establish reliability and validityand should only be used in conjunction 
with other sources of assessment information when describing students 
multiple intelligences. 

In addition to observation and checklists, there are several other excellent 
ways to get assessment information about students multiple intelligences: 

Collect documents. Anecdotal records are not the only way to document 
students strongest intelligences. Teachers should consider having a 
digital camera available to snap pictures of students displaying evidence of 
their multiple intelligences. Photos are particularly useful for documenting 
products or experiences that might be gone in another 10 minutes, like giant 
Lego structures. If students show a particular capacity for telling stories or 
singing songs, record them and keep the recording as a document. If students 
have drawing or painting abilities, keep samples of their work or take 
photos of them. If students show their greatest assets during a football game 
or through a hands-on demonstration of how to fix a machine or plant a 
flower, capture their performance on videotape. Ultimately, MI assessment 
data will consist of several kinds of documents, including photos, sketches, 
samples of schoolwork, audio and video samples, color photocopies, and 
more. Creating computer files for these documents and putting them on CD 
or DVD can allow all of this information to be conveniently included on a 
single disc and reviewed by teachers, administrators, parents, and the students 
themselves. (For more on assessment through multiple intelligences, 
see Chapter 10.) 

Look at school records. As two-dimensional and lifeless as they sometimes 
appear, cumulative records can provide important information about 
a students multiple intelligences. Look at the students grades over the 
years. Are grades in math and the hard sciences consistently higher than 
grades in literature and the social sciences? If so, this may be evidence of 
an inclination toward logical-mathematical rather than linguistic intelligence. 
High grades in art and graphic design may indicate well-developed 
spatial intelligence, while As and Bs in physical education and shop class 
may point toward bodily-kinesthetic abilities. Similarly, standardized test 
scores can sometimes provide differential information about a students 
intelligences. On intelligence tests, for example, there are often subtests 
that tap linguistic intelligence (vocabulary and information categories), 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

logical-mathematical intelligence (analogies, arithmetic), and spatial intelligence 
(picture arrangement, block design). A number of other tests may 
point toward specific intelligences. Here is a partial list of the kinds of tests 
that may relate to each intelligence: 

 
Linguisticreading tests, language tests, the verbal sections of intelligence 
and achievement tests 
 
Logical-mathematicalPiagetian assessments, math achievement tests, 
the reasoning sections of intelligence tests 
 
Spatialvisual memory and visual-motor tests, art aptitude tests, 
some performance items on intelligence tests 
 
Bodily-kinestheticmanual dexterity tests, some motor subtests in 
neuropsychological batteries, the Presidents Physical Fitness Test 
 
Interpersonalsocial maturity scales, sociograms, interpersonal projective 
tests (e.g., Family Kinetic Drawing) 
 
Intrapersonalself-concept assessments, projective tests, tests of emotional 
intelligence 
 
Naturalisttest items that include questions about animals, plants, or 
natural settings 
School records may also contain valuable anecdotal information about 
a students multiple intelligences. One of the most valuable sources, Ive 
discovered, is the kindergarten teachers report. Often, the kindergarten 
teacher is the only educator to see the child regularly using all eight intelligences. 
Consequently, comments like loves finger painting, moves 
gracefully during music and dance time, or creates beautiful structures 
with blocks can provide clues to a students spatial, musical, or bodily-
kinesthetic proclivities. 

When reviewing a students cumulative records, Ive found it useful to 
photocopy the records (with permission from the school and parents, of 
course) and then take a highlighter and highlight all the positive information 
about that student, including the highest grades and test scores and the positive 
observations of others. I then type up each piece of highlighted information 
on a separate sheet of paper and organize the sheets according to 
intelligences. This practice provides me with solid information about a students 
strongest intelligences that I can then communicate to parents, administrators, 
and the students teachers. This approach allows you to begin 


Describing Intelligences in Students 

conferences on a positive note, particularly with troubled and troublesome 
students (such as at IEP meetings), thus facilitating constructive solutions. 

Talk with other teachers. If you have students only for English or math 
class, then you are usually not in a position to observe them displaying 
bodily-kinesthetic or musical gifts (unless, of course, you are regularly 
teaching through the multiple intelligences). Even if you work with students 
through all subject areas, you can often get additional information by contacting 
specialists who are working more specifically with one or two of the 
intelligences. Hence, the art teacher might be the best person to talk with 
about a students spatial intelligence, the physical education teacher about 
certain bodily-kinesthetic abilities, and the school about the personal intelligences 
(although the counselors ability to share information may be limited 
due to issues of confidentiality). Regard your colleagues as important 
sources of assessment information about students multiple intelligences 
and meet with them periodically to compare notes. You may find that a child 
who appears quite low functioning in one class will be one of the stars in a 
class that requires a different set of intelligences. 

Talk with parents. Parents are true experts on a childs multiple intelligences. 
Theyve had the opportunity to see the child learn and grow under 
a broad spectrum of circumstances encompassing all eight intelligences. 
Consequently, they ought to be enlisted in the effort to identify the childs 
strongest intelligences. During back-to-school night, parents should be introduced 
to the concept of multiple intelligences and be provided with specific 
ways through which they can observe and document their childs strengths 
at home, including the use of scrapbooks, audio and video samples, photos, 
stories, sketches, and artifacts that emerged from a childs special hobby or 
other interest. Then, parents can bring any information that may help teachers 
develop a broader understanding of the childs multiple intelligences to 
future parent-teacher conferences. 

Many years ago, the phrase the six-hour retarded child was used to 
describe a student who showed little promise or potential in the classroom 
but was a real achiever outside of school, perhaps as the leader of a youth 
group, a jack-of-all-trades to whom neighbors came for all kinds of repairs, 
or a fledgling entrepreneur with a flourishing small business. Obtaining 
assessment information from the home is critical in discovering ways to 
transplant such successes from the home to the school. 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

Ask students. Students are the ultimate experts on their multiple intelligences, 
because theyve lived with them 24 hours a day ever since they were 
born. After they have been introduced to the idea of multiple intelligences 
(see Chapter 4), you can sit down and interview them to discover what they 
consider to be their most highly developed intelligences. Ive used the MI 
Pizza shown in Chapter 4 (Figure 4.1) as a record-keeping form for making 
notes while I ask students individually about their abilities in each area. You 
can also have students draw pictures of themselves doing things in their 
most developed intelligences (a spatial approach), rank from 1 to 7 their 
most developed to least developed intelligence on the MI Pizza (a logical-
mathematical approach), or pantomime their most developed intelligences 
(a bodily-kinesthetic approach). Some of the activities in Chapter 4 can also 
be helpful in getting assessment data about students multiple intelligences. 

Set up special activities. If you regularly teach through the multiple 
intelligences, then you have frequent opportunities to assess through the 
multiple intelligences as well. So, for example, if you teach a lesson on fractions 
eight different ways, you can note how different children respond to 
each activity. The child who is almost falling asleep during the logical presentation 
may come alive when the bodily-kinesthetic approach begins, only 
to tune out again when a musical method is used. Seeing little light bulbs go 
on and off during the course of a day is both an affirmation of the existence 
of these intelligences as well as a record of the individual differences in your 
class. Similarly, setting up activity centers for each intelligence (see Chapter 
7) provides opportunities for seeing how students function in each area or 
which areas students naturally gravitate toward when they are free to 
choose. Since the MI perspective on assessment (presented in Chapter 10) 
is based on a close connection between instruction and assessment, many 
of the activities in Chapters 5 and 6 can be used as diagnostic indicators as 
well as teaching activities. 

For Further Study 


1. Fill out the inventory in Figure 3.2 for each student in your classroom. 
Notice which items cannot be answered for lack of sufficient background 

Describing Intelligences in Students 

information about the student. Identify methods you can use to obtain information 
about these items (e.g., parent or child interview, experiential activities), 
and then use them to help complete the inventory. How does your 
view of individual children remain the same or change as a result of framing 
their lives in terms of MI theory? What implications do the inventory results 
have for your teaching? Alternatively, use one of the standardized measures 
that have been developed to assess students multiple intelligences, such as 
Branton Shearers Multiple Intelligence Developmental Assessment Scales 
(MIDAS) or Sue Teeles Teele Inventory for Multiple Intelligences (TIMI) 
(Shearer, 1994; Teele, 1992). 

2. Keep a journal to record observations of students multiple intelligences. 
If you observe students outside the classroom (e.g., as a recess or 
lunchroom monitor) notice how their behavior is the same as or different 
from their behavior in the classroom. What evidence for each students multiple 
intelligences emerges from the anecdotal data? 
3. Select one form of documenting students learning activities that you 
havent yet tried, such as audio, video, or photography. Experiment with it 
and notice how effective it may be in providing and communicating information 
about students multiple intelligences. 
4. Have students express to you their preferred intelligences through 
one or more of the following media: writing, drawing, pantomime, group 
discussion, and personal interview. Make sure they have first been introduced 
to MI theory through some of the activities described in Chapter 4. 
5. During parent-teacher conferences, devote some time to acquiring 
information about a students multiple intelligences at home. 
6. Review selected students cumulative files, focusing on data that suggest 
the presence of special proclivities in one or more of the eight intelligences. 
If possible, obtain copies of the file material so you can highlight 
strengths with a highlighter and then transcribe the highlighted items onto 
separate sheets of paper. Distribute these strength profiles at the next 
meeting called to discuss students learning. 
7. Confer with other teachers about students multiple intelligences. Set 
aside special time so that teachers who are responsible for different intelligences 
in school (e.g., math, shop, art, literature, biology, and music teachers) 
can reflect upon students performance in each learning context. 

4 

Teaching Students about 
MI Theory 

Give me a fish and I eat for a day. 
Teach me to fish and I eat for a lifetime. 

Proverb 

One of the most useful features of MI theory is that it can be explained to a 
group of children as young as 1st graders in as little as 5 minutes in such a 
way that they can then use the MI vocabulary to talk about how they learn. 
While many other theories of learning contain terms and acronyms not easily 
understood by adults, let alone children (e.g., INFP in the Myers-Briggs 
typology, which refers to an Introverted, Intuitive, Feeling, Judging person) 
the eight intelligences of MI are linked to concrete things that young 
and old alike have had experience with: words, numbers, pictures, the body, 
music, people, the self, and nature. 

Research in cognitive psychology applied to education has supported 
the notion that children benefit from instructional approaches that help 
them reflect upon their own learning processes (Marzano et al., 1988). When 
children engage in this kind of metacognitive activity, they can select appropriate 
strategies for problem solving. They can also serve as advocates for 
themselves when placed in new learning environments. 

44 


Teaching Students About MI Theory 

Five-Minute Introduction to MI Theory 

How does a teacher present the theory of multiple intelligences to a group 
of students? Naturally, the answer to that question will depend in part on 
the size of the class, the developmental level of students, their background, 
and the kinds of instructional resources available. The most direct way to 
introduce MI theory to students is simply to explain it to them. When I go to 
a new classroom to demonstrate how to teach a multiple intelligence lesson, 
I always begin with a 5-minute explanation of the theory so students have a 
context for understanding what I am doing there. I usually begin by asking, 
How many of you think youre intelligent? Ive discovered that there seems 
to be an inverse relationship between the number of hands that go up and 
the grade level that Im teachingthat is, the lower the grade level, the more 
hands go up. This reminds me of NYU professor Neil Postmans remark that 
children go into school as question marks and leave school as periods. 
What do we do in the intervening years to convince children that theyre not 
intelligent? 

Regardless of the number of hands that go up, I usually say, All of you 
are intelligentand not just in one way. Each of you is intelligent in at least 
eight different ways. I draw an MI Pizza (a circle divided into eight slices) 
on the blackboard and then begin to explain the model. First, there is 
something called word smart. I use simple terms to describe the intelligences, 
since words like linguistic are a mouthful for many children. As 
shown in Figure 4.1, I also accompany each term with a graphic symbol to 
spatially reinforce it. Then I ask questions. How many people here can 
speak? Usually, Ill get a lot of hands with this question! Well, in order to 
speak you have to use words, so all of you are word smart! How many 
people here can write? Youre using words here also, so again, youre all 
word smart. Essentially, I ask questions that build inclusion. I steer clear of 
questions that might exclude lots of students, such as How many of you 
have read 15 books in the past month? This is a learning model not for 
deciding which exclusive group one is a member of, but for celebrating all 
of ones potentials for learning. Otherwise, teachers might be preparing the 
way for students to say, I just learned in school today that Im not linguistically 
intelligent, or I dont have to read this book, because Im really not 
word smart. 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

4.1 
MI Pizza 
Nature Word 
Smart Smart 
Self Logic 
Smart Smart 
People Picture 
Smart Smart 
Music Body 
Smart Smart 

Here are the simple terms for each of the intelligences and some questions 
that I use in my presentations: 

 
LinguisticWord Smart (see questions above) 
 
Logical-mathematicalNumber Smart or Logic Smart: How many 
of you can do math? How many people here have done a science 
experiment? 
 
SpatialPicture Smart: How many of you draw? How many of you 
can see pictures in your heads when you close your eyes? How many 
of you enjoy watching television and films or playing video games? 
 
Bodily-kinestheticBody Smart, Sports Smart, or Hand Smart (each 
term represents a different aspect of this intelligence): How many of 
you like sports? How many of you enjoy making things with your 
hands, like models or Lego structures? 
 
MusicalMusic Smart: How many of you enjoy listening to music? 
How many of you have ever played a musical instrument or sung a 
song? 

Teaching Students About MI Theory 

 
InterpersonalPeople Smart: How many of you have at least one 
friend? How many of you enjoy working in groups at least part of the 
time here in school? 
 
IntrapersonalSelf Smart: How many of you have a secret or special 
place you go to when you want to get away from everybody and everything? 
How many of you like to spend at least part of the time working 
on your own here in class? 
 
NaturalistNature Smart: How many of you enjoy being out in 
nature? How many of you have ever had a butterfly collection, an 
insect collection, a collection of leaves from trees in your neighborhood, 
a collection of shells, or some other kind of collection of natural 
things? How many of you have pets or enjoy spending time with 
animals? 
You can develop your own questions to illustrate each intelligence. Just 
make sure they build in inclusion and give all children a chance to initially see 
themselves as intelligent. You can also give examples of what Howard Gardner 
calls the end-states of each intelligencethat is, people who have 
developed an intelligence to a high level of competence. These examples 
provide students with models to be inspired by and to aspire to. Pick famous 
figures and heroes from each students own world. Examples might include 

 
Authors of childrens literature that the class has been reading (Word 
Smart) 
 
Famous scientists students have studied in class (Number Smart or 
Logic Smart) 
 
Illustrators of childrens literature, famous cartoonists, and filmmakers 
(Picture Smart) 
 
Famous sports heroes and actors (Body Smart) 
 
Famous rock stars, rappers, and other musicians (Music Smart) 
 
TV talk show hosts and politicians (People Smart) 
 
Famous entrepreneurs (self-made people) (Self Smart) 
 
Animal experts and nature explorers (Nature Smart) 
Activities for Teaching MI Theory 

Naturally, youll want to go beyond a simple verbal explanation of the model, 
and you should strive to teach the model in all eight intelligences. There are 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

a number of ways of introducing the model or of following up your five-
minute introduction with reinforcing activities and supplementary experiences. 
Here are some examples: 

Career Day: If you regularly bring members of your community into the 
classroom to talk about their jobs, begin to contextualize this activity within 
a multiple intelligence framework. Bring in an editor to talk about the kinds of 
word smart activities he uses, a tax accountant to speak about how being 
number smart helps her to help people, or an architect to explain the usefulness 
of being picture smart in her career. Other Career Day guests might 
include an athlete (body smart), a professional musician (music smart), a 
counselor (people smart), a person who has started a business (self smart), 
or a veterinarian (nature smart). Keep in mind that each career usually 
involves several intelligences and that you might want to discuss how each 
role brings together a combination of intelligences in a unique way. These 
presentations are extremely important in emphasizing to students that each 
of the intelligences plays a vital part in peoples success in the world. You may 
want to speak beforehand with the guests about the model so they can work 
it into their presentations. Or you can simply follow up their appearances by 
relating what they said or did to one or more of the eight intelligences. 

Field trips: Take students to places in the community where each of 
the intelligences is particularly valued and practiced. Destinations might 
include a library (word smart), a science lab (logic smart), a crafts factory 
(body smart), a radio station that plays music (music smart), a graphic 
design studio (picture smart), a public relations firm (people smart), a psychologists 
office (self smart), and a zoo (nature smart). Again, seeing these 
intelligences in context gives students a more accurate real-life picture of 
MI theory than they could ever get in a classroom setting. 

Biographies: Have students study the lives of well-known people proficient 
in one or more of the intelligences (see Gardner, 1993c). Subjects for 
study might include Toni Morrison (word smart), Marie Curie (logic smart), 
Vincent Van Gogh (picture smart), Roberto Clemente (body smart), Yo-Yo 
Ma (music smart), Martin Luther King Jr. (people smart), Sigmund Freud 
(self smart), and Jane Goodall (nature smart). Make sure the people studied 
are representative of your students cultural, racial, gender, and ethnic 
backgrounds. (See Chapter 13 for more multicultural examples of famous 
people and Chapter 11 for examples of famous people in each intelligence 
who overcame specific disabilities.) 


Teaching Students About MI Theory 

Lesson plans: Teach an eight-way lesson on a particular subject or in 
a specific skill area (see Chapter 5 for guidelines on creating MI lessons). 
Explain beforehand to students that you are going to teach this material 
using each of the eight intelligences and that they should pay particular 
attention to how each of the eight intelligences is covered. After the lesson, 
ask students to describe your use of each intelligence. This activity requires 
students to reflect upon the kinds of processes necessary for each intelligence 
and reinforces their metacognitive awareness. You may also want to 
ask them which particular method or methods they preferred. In this way, 
you help students begin to understand which strategies they prefer to use 
when learning something new. 

Quick experiential activities: An experiential way of introducing MI 
theory is to have students complete eight activities, each of which draws 
primarily upon the use of one intelligence. For instance, you might have students 
do some writing (write down a few lines from a poem that you know), 
math (tell me how long ago a million seconds ago was), drawing (draw a 
picture of an animal), running (go outside and run to the end of the block 
and back), singing (lets all sing Row, Row, Row Your Boat together), 
sharing (turn to a partner and share something nice that happened to you 
this week), self-reflecting (close your eyes and think about the happiest 
moment in your lifeyou wont have to share it with anybody), and observing 
nature (look out the window and notice all the living things and natural 
formations you can see). Adjust the activities to the ability level of your 
students, choosing activities that just about everyone can do and giving 
those who cant do them modified versions of the activities. You can use this 
approach either before or after explicitly describing the eight kinds of 
smart. Make sure to ask students which activities they prefer, and remember 
to relate each activity to one (or more) of the eight intelligences. 

Wall displays: Walk into a typical U.S. classroom and youll often find a 
poster of Albert Einstein on the wall. Einstein is probably a good representative 
of multiple intelligences because he used several of them in his work, 
including spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, and logical-mathematical. Rather than 
just displaying this one poster, however, consider hanging eight posters on 
the wall, each representing a person especially proficient in one of the intelligences 
(see Gardner, 1993c, and the Biographies section in this chapter 
for suggested names). Or hang a banner reading Eight Ways to Learn or 
This Is How We Learn in School and display photos of students in the 
school using each of the intelligences. 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

Displays: Show products made by students in the school that required 
the use of each of the eight intelligences. Examples might include essays, 
stories, or poems (word smart); computer programs (logic smart); drawings 
and paintings (picture smart); musical scores (music smart); three-
dimensional projects (body smart); cooperative projects (people smart); 
individual projects (self smart); and simulations of ecosystems (nature 
smart). The products could be displayed on a shelf, in a glass case, or on a 
table and rotated regularly so all students have a chance to display their 
achievements. Make sure each product is labeled with the intelligence or 
intelligences required to produce it. 

Readings: For high school students, you can assign readings from any of 
the growing number of books and articles on the theory of multiple intelligences, 
including chapters from Frames of Mind (Gardner, 1993a) or 7 Kinds 
of Smart (Armstrong, 1999a). Upper elementary and middle school students 
can read Youre Smarter Than You Think: A Kids Guide to Multiple Intelligences 
(Armstrong, 2003). Appendix B includes many more suggested readings. 

MI tables: Set up eight tables in the classroom, each clearly labeled with 
a sign referring to one of the eight intelligences. On each table, place an 
activity card indicating what students are to do. At the word smart table, 
students can do a writing activity; at the number smart table, a math or science 
activity; at the picture smart table, a drawing activity; at the body 
smart table, a building activity; at the music smart table, a musical activity; 
at the people smart table, a cooperative activity; at the self smart table, an 
individualized activity; and at the nature smart table, an activity that 
involves observing an animal or plant. Divide the class equally into eight 
groups, assigning each group to a particular table. Have the groups work at 
the activity for a designated amount of time (perhaps five minutes), and 
then use a musical signal (e.g., a bell) to indicate that its time to move to 
the next table (move clockwise). Continue until all students have been to 
each table and experienced each activity. Afterward, talk about students 
preferences, relating each activity to its primary intelligence. (Chapter 7 
deals more specifically with how to set up activity centers that reflect a 
multiple intelligence perspective.) 

Human intelligence hunt: If you are introducing MI theory at the beginning 
of the school year, when students still dont know each other very well, 
a human intelligence hunt is a useful way to teach students experientially 
about the eight kinds of smart while helping them get to know one another 


Teaching Students About MI Theory 

better. It is based on the premise that each of us is a treasure chest filled 
with special gifts. These gifts are our intelligences. Sometimes, though, 
were unaware of other peoples gifts, so we have to go on a treasure 
huntin this case, an intelligence huntto discover each others special 
talents. Each student receives a list of activities like those in Figure 4.2. On 
a signal such as a bell, students take the activity sheet along with a pen or 
pencil and find other students in the room who can do the activities listed. 
There are three basic rules: 

1. Students must actually perform the activities listed, not simply say 
they can do them. 
2. Once a student performs an activity to the treasure hunters satisfaction, 
he or she should initial the blank space next to the appropriate 
activity on the treasure hunters sheet. 
3. Treasure hunters can ask a person to perform only one activity; 
therefore, to compete in the treasure hunt, a student must have eight 
different sets of initials. 
You can modify the activities listed in Figure 4.2 to include activities 
geared to your students aptitudes and abilities. For instance, if youre working 
with very young students, you may want to use the song Old MacDonald 
Had a Farm rather than Beethovens Fifth Symphony. You can even create 
a hunt based entirely on pictures, which would involve students finding 
people in the class who particularly enjoy doing the kinds of activities 
depicted in each picture. After the activity, remember to link each task to a 
different intelligence and to talk about what students learned about one 
anothers gifts or intelligences. 

4.2 
Human Intelligence Hunt 
Find someone who can: 
 Hum some of Beethovens Fifth Symphony (Music Smart) 
 Do a simple dance step (Body Smart) 
 Recite four lines from a poem (Word Smart) 
 Explain why the sky is blue (Logic Smart) 
 Briefly share a recent dream (Self Smart) 
 Draw a picture of a horse (Picture Smart) 
 Honestly say she is relaxed and comfortable relating to other people during this exercise (People Smart) 
 Name five different types of birds (or trees) that are found in the immediate area (Nature Smart) 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

Board games: You can create a homemade board game based on the 
eight intelligences. Get a manila file folder and a magic marker and create 
the common board game format of a winding roadway divided into many 
small squares. Assign each intelligence a color and then place an appropriately 
colored intelligence symbol on each square of the game board. You 
may use the symbols in Figure 4.1 or make up your own. Then create eight 
sets of two-by-three-inch game cards from eight colors of paper that match 
the colored symbols on the game board. On each set of game cards, type or 
write activities that involve using a specific intelligence. Here, for instance, 
are some activities for picture smart at the primary level: 

 Draw a picture of a dog in less than 30 seconds. 
 Find an object in the shape of a circle in the class. 
 Tell us your favorite color. 
 Describe four blue things you see in the room. 
 Close you eyes and describe the pictures in your mind. 
Make sure most of the activities are within the capabilities of your students. 
Then get a pair of dice and some miniature plastic figurines as game 
pieces, and start playing! Alternatively, there are commercially available 
games that include activities that cover most of the multiple intelligences 
(e.g., the board game Cranium). 

MI stories, songs, or plays: Be creative and make up your own story, 
song, or play for teaching the idea of multiple intelligences (your students 
can help you). You might, for example, create a story about eight children, 
each an expert in a particular intelligence, who dont get along very well and 
who are forced into an adventure that requires them to travel to distant 
magical lands. In each part of the story they encounter challenges that 
require the unique intelligence of a particular child. For example, the children 
come to a land where, in order to be understood, people have to communicate 
through singing, so the musical child guides them through this 
land. In another land, they fall into a hole and get out through the body-
smart childs expertise. At the end of the story, they are able to accomplish 
their task (perhaps to retrieve a golden jewel) because they have drawn 
upon the talents or intelligences of all eight children. 

This story can then be used as a metaphor for classroom behavior: we 
need to respect and find ways of celebrating the unique talents and gifts of 


Teaching Students About MI Theory 

each student. A story like this one could be put on as a play, a puppet show, 
or a musical and performed for other students in the school. 

There are undoubtedly many other activities that would help teach students 
about the theory of multiple intelligences. The development of such 
experiences should be an ongoing process throughout the year. After you 
have introduced a few activities, it may be helpful to prominently display a 
poster listing the eight intelligences, perhaps in the form of the MI Pizza. 
When something happens that seems to relate to one or more of the eight 
intelligences, you can then use the poster to help emphasize the relationship. 
For example, if several students express a strong desire to work 
together on a project, you can point out that they want to use their people 
smarts. For a student who has created a particularly apt visual illustration 
for an assignment, you can suggest that she really employed her picture 
smarts in the work. By modeling the practical uses of MI theory frequently 
in the daily activities of the classroom, you will help students internalize the 
theory and you should begin to see them use its vocabulary to make sense 
out of their own learning processes. 

For Further Study 


1. Drawing upon the material in this chapter or activities of your own 
choosing, develop a way to introduce the theory of multiple intelligences to 
your students. Note their initial reactions. Follow this up with supplementary 
activities. How long does it take before students begin to use the terms 
themselves? Note two or three examples of how students used the theory to 
explain their learning processes. 
2. Create a mini-unit or special course for students on learning about 
learning that includes instruction in the theory of multiple intelligences. 
Include readings, exercises, activities, and strategies designed to help 
students understand their thinking styles so that they can learn more 
effectively. 
3. Design a special wall display, bulletin board, or exhibit area where the 
eight intelligences are honored and celebrated. Include posters of famous 
people, photos of students engaged in MI activities, examples of products 
made by students in each of the intelligences, or all of these things. 

5 

MI Theory and 
Curriculum Development 

We do not see in our descriptions [of classroom activity] . . . much opportunity 
for students to become engaged with knowledge so as to employ their full range of 
intellectual abilities. And one wonders about the meaningfulness of whatever is 
acquired by students who sit listening or performing relatively repetitive exercises, 
year after year. Part of the brain, known as Magouns brain, is stimulated by novelty. 
It appears to me that students spending 12 years in the schools we studied would 
be unlikely to experience much novelty. Does part of the brain just sleep, then? 

John I. Goodlad 

MI theory makes its greatest contribution to education by suggesting that 
teachers need to expand their repertoire of techniques, tools, and strategies 
beyond the typical linguistic and logical ones predominantly used in American 
classrooms. According to John Goodlads pioneering A Study of Schooling 
project, which involved researchers in observing over 1,000 classrooms 
nationwide, nearly 70 percent of classroom time is consumed by teacher 
talkmainly teachers talking at students, such as by giving instructions 
or lecturing. The next most widely observed activity was students doing written 
assignments, and according to Goodlad (2004), much of this work was 
in the form of responding to directives in workbooks or on worksheets 

54 


MI Theory and Curriculum Development 

(p. 230). Twenty-five years after Goodlads study was originally published, the 
scenario has not changed much and may even, in fact, have become worse. 
The federal governments No Child Left Behind law has created a climate in 
which standardized tests, and standardized methods to prepare for them, 
have overwhelmed the landscape in schools across the United States (Wallis, 
2008). In this context, the theory of multiple intelligences functions not only 
as a specific remedy to one- sidedness in teaching but also as a metamodel 
for organizing and synthesizing all the educational innovations that have 
sought to break out of this narrowly confined approach to learning. In doing 
so, MI theory provides a broad range of stimulating curricula to awaken the 
slumbering brains that Goodlad fears populate our nations schools. 
The Historical Background 
of Multimodal Teaching 

Multiple intelligences as a philosophy guiding instruction is hardly a new 
concept. Even Plato (1952), in a manner of speaking, seemed aware of the 
importance of multimodal teaching when he wrote: . . . do not use compulsion, 
but let early education be a sort of amusement; you will then be better 
able to find out the natural bent (p. 399). More recently, virtually all the 
pioneers of modern education developed systems of teaching based upon 
more than verbal pedagogy. The 18th-century philosopher Jean Jacques 
Rousseau declared in his classic treatise on education, Emile, that the child 
must learn not through words but through experience, not through books 
but through the book of life. The Swiss reformer Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi 
emphasized an integrated curriculum that regarded physical, moral, 
and intellectual training based solidly on concrete experiences. And the 
founder of the modern-day kindergarten, Friedrich Froebel, developed a 
curriculum consisting of hands-on experiences with manipulatives (gifts), 
in addition to playing games, singing songs, gardening, and caring for animals. 
In the 20th century, innovators like Maria Montessori and John Dewey 
evolved systems of instruction based upon MI-like techniques, including 
Montessoris tactile letters and other self-paced materials and Deweys 
vision of the classroom as a microcosm of society. 

By the same token, many recent alternative educational models essentially 
are multiple intelligence systems using different terminologies (and 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

with varying levels of emphasis upon the different intelligences). Cooperative 
learning, for example, seems to place its greatest emphasis upon interpersonal 
intelligence, yet specific activities can involve students in each of 
the other intelligences as well. Similarly, whole language instruction has at 
its core the cultivation of linguistic intelligence, yet it uses music, hands-on 
activities, introspection (through journal keeping), and group work to carry 
out its fundamental goals. 

MI theory essentially encompasses what good teachers have always 
done in their teaching: reaching beyond the text and the blackboard to 
awaken students minds. Two exemplary movies about great teachers, Stand 
and Deliver (1987) and Dead Poets Society (1989), underline this point. In 
Stand and Deliver, Jaime Escalante (played by Edward James Olmos), a high 
school mathematics teacher, uses apples to introduce fractions, fingers to 
teach multiplication, and imagery and metaphor to clarify negative numbers 
(if one digs a hole in the ground, the hole represents negative numbers, the 
pile of dirt next to it signifies positive numbers). John Keating (played by 
Robin Williams), the prep school instructor in Dead Poets Society, has students 
reading literary passages while kicking soccer balls and listening to 
classical music. MI theory provides a way for all teachers to reflect upon 
their best teaching methods and to understand why these methods work (or 
why they work well for some students but not for others). It also helps 
teachers expand their current teaching repertoire to include a broader 
range of methods, materials, and techniques for reaching an ever wider and 
more diverse range of learners. 

The MI Teacher 

A teacher in an MI classroom contrasts sharply with a teacher in a traditional 
linguistic/logical-mathematical classroom. In the traditional classroom, 
the teacher lectures while standing at the front of the classroom, 
writes on the blackboard, asks students questions about the assigned 
reading or handouts, and waits while students finish their written work. 
In the MI classroom, while keeping her educational objective firmly in 
mind, the teacher continually shifts her method of presentation from linguistic 
to spatial to musical and so on, often combining intelligences in 
creative ways. 


MI Theory and Curriculum Development 

The MI teacher may spend part of the time lecturing and writing on the 
blackboard at the front of the room. This, after all, is a legitimate teaching 
technique. Teachers have simply been doing too much of it. The MI teacher, 
however, also draws pictures on the blackboard or shows a video clip to 
illustrate an idea. She often plays music at some time during the day, either 
to set the stage for an objective, to make a point about the objective, or to 
provide an environment for studying the objective. The MI teacher provides 
hands-on experiences, whether they involve getting students up and moving 
about, passing an artifact around to bring to life the material studied, or having 
students build something tangible to reveal their understanding. The MI 
teacher also has students interacting with each other in different ways (e.g., 
in pairs, small groups, or large groups); plans time for students to engage in 
self-reflection, undertake self-paced work, or link their personal experiences 
and feelings to the material being studied; and creates opportunities for 
learning to occur through living things. 

Such characterizations of what the MI teacher does and does not do, 
however, should not serve to rigidify the instructional dimensions of MI 
theory. The theory can be implemented in a wide range of instructional contexts, 
from highly traditional settings where teachers spend much of their 
time directly teaching students to open environments where students regulate 
most of their own learning. Even traditional linguistic teaching can take 
place in a variety of ways designed to stimulate the eight intelligences. The 
teacher who lectures with rhythmic emphasis (musical), draws pictures on 
the board to illustrate points (spatial), makes dramatic gestures as she talks 
(bodily-kinesthetic), pauses to give students time to reflect (intrapersonal), 
asks questions that invite spirited interaction (interpersonal), and includes 
references to nature in her lectures (naturalist) is using MI principles within 
a traditional teacher-centered perspective. 

Key Materials and Methods of MI Teaching 

There are a number of teaching tools in MI theory that go far beyond the 
traditional teacher-as-lecturer mode of instruction. Figure 5.1 provides a 
quick summary of some MI teaching methods. The list on pp. 6064 provides 
a broader, but still incomplete, survey of the techniques and materials that 
can be employed in teaching through the multiple intelligences. (Capitalized 
items in the list are discussed more fully in Chapter 6.) 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

5.1Summary of the Eight Ways of TeachingIntelligence Teaching 
Activities(examples) 
Teaching 
Materials(examples) 
InstructionalStrategies 
SampleEducationalMovement(primary 
intelligence) 
Sample Teacher 
PresentationSkill 
Sample Activityto Begin aLesson 
Linguistic lectures,
discussions,
word games,
storytelling, choral 
reading, journal 
writing 
books, tape 
recorders,
typewriters, stamp 
sets, books on tape 
read about it, write 
about it, talk about 
it, listen to it 
Critical Literacy teaching throughstorytelling 
long word on theblackboard 
Logical-
Mathematical 
brainteasers,
problem solving,
scienceexperiments, mental 
calculation, number 
games, critical 
thinking 
calculators, math 
manipulatives,
science equipment,
math games 
quantify it, think 
critically about it,
put it in a logicalframework,
experiment with it 
Critical Thinking Socratic questioning posing a logicalparadox 
Spatial visualpresentations, art 
activities,
imagination games,
mind-mapping,
metaphor,
visualization 
graphs, maps,
video, Lego sets, art 
materials, optical 
illusions, cameras,
picture library 
see it, draw it,
visualize it, color it,
mind-map it 
Integrated ArtsInstruction 
drawing/
mind-mappingconcepts 
unusual picture onthe overhead 


MI Theory and Curriculum Development 

Bodily-
Kinesthetic 
hands-on learning,
drama, dance,
sports that teach,
tactile activities,
relaxation exercises 
building tools, clay,
sports equipment,
manipulatives,
tactile learningresources 
build it, act it out,
touch it, get a 
gut feeling of it,
dance it 
Hands-On Learning using gestures/
dramaticexpressions 
mysterious artifactpassed around theclass 
Musical rhythmic learnings,
rap ping, using 
songs that teach 
tape recorder, tape 
collection, musical 
instruments 
sing it, rap it, listen 
to it 
Orff Schulwerk using voicerhythmically 
piece of musicplayed as studentscome into class 
Interpersonal cooperativelearning, peer 
tutoring, community 
involvement, social 
gatherings,
simulations 
board games, party 
supplies, props for 
role-plays 
teach it, collaborate 
on it, interact with 
respect to it 
CooperativeLearning 
dynamicallyinteracting withstudents 
Turn to a neighbor 
and share . . .  
Intrapersonal individualizedinstruction,
independent study,
options in course ofstudy, self-esteem 
building 
self-checkingmaterials, journals,
materials forprojects 
connect it to yourpersonal life, make 
choices with regardto it, refl ect on it 
IndividualizedInstruction 
bringing feeling intopresentation 
Close your eyesand think of atime in your lifewhen . . .  
Naturalist nature study,
ecologicalawareness, care of 
animals 
plants, animals,
naturalists tools(e.g., binoculars),
gardening tools 
connect it to livingthings and naturalphenomena 
Ecological Studies linking subjectmatter to naturalphenomena 
bring in aninteresting plant oranimal to sparkdiscussion abouttopic 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

Linguistic 

 Books 
 BRAINSTORMING 
 Choral reading 
 Debates 
 Extemporaneous speaking 
 Individualized reading 
 JOURNAL KEEPING 
 Large- and small-group discussions 
 Lectures 
 Manuals 
 Memorizing linguistic facts 
 PUBLISHING (e.g., creating class newspapers) 
 Reading to the class 
 Sharing time 
 STORYTELLING 
 Student speeches 
 Talking books 
 TAPE RECORDING ONES WORDS 
 Using word processing software 
 Word games 
 Worksheets 
 Writing activities 
Logical-Mathematical 

 CLASSIFICATIONS AND CATEGORIZATIONS 
 Computer programming languages 
 Creating codes 
 HEURISTICS 
 Logic puzzles and games 
 Logical problem-solving exercises 
 Logical-sequential presentation of subject matter 
 Mathematical problems on the board 
 Piagetian cognitive exercises 
 CALCULATIONS AND QUANTIFICATIONS 
 SCIENCE THINKING 

MI Theory and Curriculum Development 

 Scientific demonstrations 
 SOCRATIC QUESTIONING 
Spatial 

 3-D construction kits 
 Art appreciation 
 Charts, graphs, diagrams, and maps 
 COLOR CUES 
 Computer graphics software 
 Creative daydreaming 
 Draw-and-paint/computer-assisted-design software 
 GRAPHIC SYMBOLS 
 IDEA SKETCHING 
 Imaginative storytelling 
 Mind-maps and other visual organizers 
 Optical illusions 
 Painting, collage, and other visual arts 
 Photography 
 Picture literacy experiences 
 PICTURE METAPHORS 
 Videos, slides, and movies 
 Visual awareness activities 
 Visual pattern seeking 
 Visual puzzles and mazes 
 Visual thinking exercises 
 VISUALIZATION 
Bodily-Kinesthetic 

 BODY ANSWERS 
 BODY MAPS 
 CLASSROOM THEATER 
 Competitive and cooperative games 
 Cooking, gardening, and other messy activities 
 Crafts 
 Creative movement 
 Field trips 

Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

 Hands-on activities of all kinds 
 HANDS-ON THINKING 
 KINESTHETIC CONCEPTS 
 Manipulatives 
 Mime 
 Physical awareness exercises 
 Physical education activities 
 Physical relaxation exercises 
 Tactile materials and experiences 
 Use of kinesthetic imagery 
 Using body language/hand signals to communicate 
 Virtual reality software 
Musical 

 Creating new melodies for concepts 
 DISCOGRAPHIES 
 Group singing 
 Linking old tunes with concepts 
 Listening to inner musical imagery 
 MOOD MUSIC 
 Music appreciation 
 Musical composition software 
 MUSICAL CONCEPTS 
 Playing live music on piano, guitar, or other instruments 
 Playing percussion instruments 
 Playing recorded music 
 RHYTHMS, SONGS, RAPS, AND CHANTS 
 Singing, humming, or whistling 
 SUPERMEMORY MUSIC 
 Using background music 
Interpersonal 

 Academic clubs 
 Apprenticeships 
 BOARD GAMES 

MI Theory and Curriculum Development 

 Community involvement 
 Conflict mediation 
 COOPERATIVE GROUPS 
 Cross-age tutoring 
 Group brainstorming sessions 
 Interactive software or Internet platforms 
 Interpersonal interaction 
 Parties or social gatherings as context for learning 
 PEER SHARING 
 PEOPLE SCULPTURES 
 SIMULATIONS 
Intrapersonal 

 CHOICE TIME 
 Exposure to inspirational/motivational curricula 
 FEELING-TONED MOMENTS 
 GOAL-SETTING SESSIONS 
 Independent study 
 Individualized projects and games 
 Interest centers 
 ONE-MINUTE REFLECTION PERIODS 
 Options for homework 
 PERSONAL CONNECTIONS 
 Private spaces for study 
 Self-esteem activities 
 Self-paced instruction 
 Self-teaching programmed instruction 
Naturalist 

 Aquariums, terrariums, and other portable ecosystems 
 Class weather station 
 ECO-STUDY 
 Gardening 
 Nature-oriented software 
 Nature study tools (binoculars, telescope, microscope) 

Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

 Nature videos, films, and movies 
 NATURE WALKS 
 PET-IN-THE-CLASSROOM 
 PLANTS AS PROPS 
 WINDOWS ONTO LEARNING 
How to Create MI Lesson Plans 

On one level, MI theory applied to the curriculum might best be represented 
by a loose and diverse collection of teaching strategies such as those listed 
above. In this sense, MI theory represents a model of instruction that has no 
distinct rules other than the demands imposed by the cognitive components 
of the intelligences themselves and the specific needs of the domain 
in which they are teaching (e.g., math, science, literature, etc.). Teachers 
can pick and choose from the above activities, implementing the theory in 
ways suited to their own unique teaching style and congruent with their 
educational philosophy (as long as that philosophy does not declare that all 
children learn in the exact same way). 

On a deeper level, however, MI theory suggests a set of parameters 
within which educators can create new curricula. In fact, the theory provides 
a context within which educators can address any skill, content area, 
theme, or instructional objective and develop at least eight ways to teach it. 
Essentially, MI theory offers a means of building daily lesson plans, weekly 
units, year-long themes, and programs in such a way that all students can 
have their strongest intelligences addressed at least some of the time. 

The best way to approach curriculum development using the theory of 
multiple intelligences is by thinking about how one can translate the material 
to be taught from one intelligence to another. In other words, how can we 
take a linguistic symbol system, such as the English language, and translate 
it not into other linguistic languages, such as Spanish or French, but into 
the languages of other intelligences, namely, pictures, physical or musical 
expressions, logical symbols or concepts, social interactions, intrapersonal 
connections, and naturalistic associations? 

The following seven-step procedure suggests one way to create lesson 
plans or curriculum units using MI theory as an organizing framework: 


MI Theory and Curriculum Development 

1. Focus on a specific objective or topic. You might want to develop 
curricula on a large scale (e.g., for a year-long theme) or create a program 
for reaching a specific instructional objective (e.g., for a students individualized 
education plan). Whether you have chosen ecology or the schwa 
sound as a focus, however, make sure you have clearly and concisely 
stated the objective. Place the objective or topic in the center of a sheet of 
paper, as shown in Figure 5.2. 
2. Ask key MI questions. Figure 5.2 shows the kinds of questions to ask 
when developing a curriculum for a specific objective or topic. These questions 
can help prime the creative pump for the next steps. 
3. Consider the possibilities. Look over the questions in Figure 5.2, the 
list of MI techniques and materials in Figure 5.1, and the descriptions of 
specific strategies in Chapter 6. Which of the methods and materials seem 
most appropriate? Think also of other possibilities not listed. 
4. Brainstorm. Using an MI Planning Sheet like the one shown in Figure 
5.3, begin listing as many teaching approaches as possible for each intelligence. 
You should end up with something like the sheet shown in Figure 5.4. 
5.2 
MI Planning Questions 

Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

5.3 
MI Planning Sheet 
5.4 
Completed MI Planning Sheet on Punctuation 
Note: Punctuation marks is abbreviated p. marks. 
effective use of p. marks 


MI Theory and Curriculum Development 

When listing approaches, be specific about the topic you want to address 
(e.g., video clip of rain forest rather than simply video clip). The rule of 
thumb for brainstorming is list everything that comes to mind. Aim for at 
least 20 or 30 ideas and at least two or three ideas for each intelligence. 
Brainstorming with colleagues may help stimulate your thinking. 

5. Select appropriate activities. From the ideas on your completed 
planning sheet, circle the approaches that seem most workable in your educational 
setting. 
6. Set up a sequential plan. Using the approaches youve selected, 
design a lesson plan or unit around the specific topic or objective chosen. 
Figure 5.5 shows what an eight-day lesson plan might look like when 35 to 40 
minutes of class time each day are allotted to the objective. 
7. Implement the plan. Gather the materials needed, select an appropriate 
time frame, and then carry out the lesson plan. Modify the lesson 
as needed to incorporate changes that occur during implementation (e.g., 
based on feedback from students). 
Appendix C contains additional examples of MI lessons and programs. 

MI and Thematic Instruction 

More and more educators are recognizing the importance of teaching students 
from an interdisciplinary point of view. Although academic skill teaching 
or the teaching of isolated chunks of knowledge may provide students 
with competencies or background information that can prove useful to them 
in their further education, such instruction often fails to connect students to 
the real worlda world that they will have to function in as citizens a few 
years hence. Consequently, educators are turning toward models of instruction 
that more closely imitate or mirror life in some significant way. Such 
instruction is frequently thematic in nature. Themes cut through traditional 
curricular boundaries, weave together subjects and skills that are found 
naturally in life, and provide students with opportunities to use their multiple 
intelligences in practical ways. As Susan Kovalik (1993), developer of the 
Integrated Thematic Instruction model, puts it: A key feature of here and 
now curriculum is that it is immediately recognized (by the student) as being 
relevant and meaningful. . . . Furthermore, it purports to teach our young 
about their world and the skills necessary to act within and upon it, thus 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

Sample Eight-Day MI Lesson Plan 

Level: 4th grade 

Subject: Language arts 

Objective: To understand the function of, and differences between, four punctuation marks: the question 
mark, period, comma, and exclamation point. 

Monday (Linguistic Intelligence): Students listen to a verbal explanation of the function of punctuation 
marks, read sentences having examples of each mark, and complete a worksheet requiring them to fill in 
their own marks. 

Tuesday (Spatial Intelligence): The teacher draws on the board graphic images that correspond in 
meaning and form to each mark. Question mark = a hook, since questions hook us into requiring an 
answer; exclamation point = a staff that you pound on the floor when you want to exclaim something; a 
period = a point, since youve just made your point, plain and simple; and a comma = a brake pedal, 
since it requires you to temporarily stop in the middle of a sentence. Students can make up their own 
images and then place them as pictures in sentences (with different colors assigned to different marks). 

Wednesday (Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence): The teacher asks students to use their bodies to form 
the shapes of the different punctuation marks as she reads sentences requiring these marks (e.g., 
a curved body posture for question mark). 

Thursday (Musical Intelligence): Students make up different sounds for the punctuation marks (as 
Victor Borge did in his comedy routines) and then make these sounds in unison as different students read 
sample sentences requiring the use of the four marks. 

Friday (Logical-Mathematical Intelligence): Students form groups of four to six. Each group has a box 
divided into four compartments, each of which is assigned a punctuation mark. The groups sort sentence 
stubs with missing punctuation marks (one per sentence stub) into the four compartments according to the 
punctuation needed. 

Monday (Interpersonal Intelligence): Students form groups of four to six. Each student has four cards, 
and each card has a different punctuation mark written on it. The teacher places a sentence requiring a 
given punctuation mark on the overhead projector. As soon as students see the sentence, they toss the 
relevant card in the center of their groups circle. The first student in the group to throw in a correct card 
gets five points, the second four, and so on. 

Tuesday (Intrapersonal Intelligence): Students are asked to create their own sentences using each 
of the punctuation marks; the sentences should relate to their personal lives (e.g., a question theyd like 
somebody to answer, a statement they feel strongly about, a fact they know that theyd like others to know 
about). 

Wednesday (Naturalist Intelligence): Students are asked to assign an animal and its respective sound 
to each of the punctuation marks (e.g., a period might be a dog barking; a comma, a duck quacking; 
a question mark, a cat meowing; and an exclamation point, a lion roaring). As the teacher (or a student) 
reads a passage, the students make the animal sounds corresponding to each punctuation mark 
encountered. 


MI Theory and Curriculum Development 

preparing themselves for living the fast-paced changes of the [future] 

(p. 5). Kovaliks thematic model is based in part on year-long themes (e.g., 
What Makes It Tick?) that are themselves made up of month-long components 
(e.g., clocks/time, electrical power, transportation) and weekly topics 
(e.g., seasonal change and geologic time). Other curricular approaches 
focus on alternative time frames, such as semester units or three-month 
themes. Regardless of the time element involved, MI theory provides a context 
for structuring thematic curricula. It provides a way of making sure the 
activities selected for a theme will activate all eight intelligences and therefore 
draw upon every childs inner gifts. 
Figure 5.6 outlines the kinds of activities that might be used for the 
theme Inventions. It shows how activities can be structured to address 
traditional academic subjects as well as each of the eight intelligences. Significantly, 
this chart illustrates how science activities neednt focus only on 
logical-mathematical intelligence and how language activities (reading and 
writing) neednt focus only on linguistic intelligence. They can, in fact, span 
all eight intelligences. 

Keep in mind that MI theory can be applied to the curriculum in a variety 
of ways. There are no standard guidelines to follow. The ideas in this chapter 
are suggestions only. I invite you to create other forms or formulas for 
lesson planning or thematic development and encourage you to incorporate 
other formats, including those developed by educators such as Kovalik 
(1993) and Hunter (see Gentile, 1988). Ultimately, you should be guided by 
your deepest and sincerest attempts to reach beyond the intelligences you 
may currently be teaching to, so that every child has the opportunity to succeed 
in school. 

For Further Study 


1. Look over the list of teaching strategies in this chapter. Circle the 
strategies you use or have used in your instruction. Place a yellow star next 
to the approaches that have worked best. Place a red flag next to the activities 
you think you use too much. Finally, place a blue arrow pointing upward 
next to new activities you would like to try. Over the next few weeks, eliminate 
or scale back your use of some of the red-flagged/overused techniques, 

Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

5.6MI and Thematic InstructionSample Theme: InventionsIntelligence Math Science Reading Writing Social Studies 
Linguistic Read math problems 
involving inventions 
Talk about the basic scientifi c 
principles involved in specifi c 
inventions 
Read a general book aboutinventions 
Write about what youd liketo invent 
Write about the socialconditions that gave rise tocertain inventions 
Logical-
Mathematical 
Learn a math formula thatserved as the basis for an 
invention 
Create a hypothesis for thedevelopment of a newinvention 
Read a book about the logicand math behind inventions 
Write a word problem basedon a famous invention 
Create a time line of famous 
inventions 
Spatial Sketch the geometry involved 
in specifi c inventions 
Draw a new or existing invention 
showing all working 
parts 
Read a book with lotsof diagrams of the innerworkings of inventions 
Label the individual components 
of your drawing of aninvention 
Paint a mural showing inventions 
in social/historicalcontext 
Bodily-
Kinesthetic 
Create an invention to measure 
a specifi c physical 
activity 
Build your own inventionbased on sound scientifi c 
principles 
Read the instructions forputting together an existinginvention 
Write instructions for buildingyour own invention fromscrap materials 
Put on a play about howa certain invention cameto be 
Musical Study the math involved inthe invention of musicalinstruments 
Study the science behind theinvention of electronic music 
Read about the backgroundto invention songs such asJohn Henry 
Write the lyrics for a songpromoting a new invention 
Listen to music aboutinventions at different 
historical periods 
Interpersonal Be in a study group thatlooks at the mathematicsinvolved in specifi c inventions 
Form a discussion group tostudy the science behindinventions 
Read about the cooperationnecessary for developing an 
invention 
Write a play about inventionsthat can be put on by theclass 
Hold a discussion groupabout how a certain invention 
came to be 
Intrapersonal Create your own word problems 
based on inventions 
Develop a self-study programto examine the scientifi c 
basis for a specifi c invention 
Read the biography of afamous inventor 
Write your personalautobiography as afamous inventor 
Think about this question:
if you could invent a timemachine, where would you 
go? 
Naturalist Investigate inventionsused to measure positions ofnatural phenomena(e.g., astrolabe) 
Study the scientifi c principles 
behind cloning and how acloned human being maysomeday represent a biological 
invention 
Read about naturalist inventions 
such as wetware
(biological software) andgenetically altered foods 
Write an essay on your opinion 
of the use of animalsin experiments to developinventions 
Design an invention thatwould contribute to the ecological 
welfare of the planet 


MI Theory and Curriculum Development 

increase the time you spend using the yellow-starred approaches, and add 
some of the blue-arrowed techniques to your teaching repertoire. 

2. Select a specific skill or instructional objective that many of your students 
dont seem to be effectively learning. Apply the seven-step planning 
process described in this chapter to generate a multiple intelligence lesson 
or series of lessons, and then teach your students using the activities youve 
developed. 
Afterward, reflect upon the lesson. Which parts were most successful? 
Which were least successful? Ask students to reflect upon the lesson in the 
same way. What have you learned from this experience that can help you 
regularly teach through multiple intelligences? 

3. Select a theme to serve as a basis for a curriculum in your class. Use 
the seven-step lesson-planning process described in this chapter to generate 
a basic framework of activities that includes all eight intelligences and 
each academic subject area. (Refer to Figure 5.6 for guidance in developing 
activities.) 
4. Focus on an intelligence that you usually dont touch upon in your 
teaching, create a lesson plan that includes it, and teach the lesson to your 
students. (See Appendix B for instructional resources in each intelligence.) 

6 

MI Theory and 
Teaching Strategies 

If the only tool you have is a hammer, everything around you looks like a nail. 

Abraham Maslow 

MI theory opens the door to a wide range of teaching strategies that can be 
easily implemented in the classroom. In many cases, they are strategies that 
have been used for decades by good teachers. In other cases, the theory of 
multiple intelligences offers teachers an opportunity to develop innovative 
teaching strategies that are relatively new to the educational scene. MI theory 
suggests that no one set of teaching strategies will work best for all 
students at all times. All children have different proclivities in the eight intelligences, 
so any particular strategy is likely to be highly successful with one 
group of students and less successful with other groups. For example, teachers 
who use the Rhythms, Songs, Raps, and Chants strategy discussed in 
this chapter as a pedagogical tool will probably find that musically inclined 
students respond while nonmusical students remain unmoved. Similarly, 
the use of pictures and images in teaching will reach students who are more 
spatially oriented but perhaps have a different effect on those who are more 
physically or verbally inclined. 

72 


MI Theory and Teaching Strategies 

Because of these individual differences among students, teachers are 
best advised to use a broad range of teaching strategies with their students. 
As long as instructors shift their intelligence emphasis from presentation to 
presentation, there will always be a time during the period or day when a 
student has his or her own most highly developed intelligence(s) actively 
involved in learning. 

In this chapter, I present 40 teaching strategies, five for each of the eight 
intelligences. The strategies are designed to be general enough so you can 
apply them at any grade level, yet specific enough so that little guesswork is 
required to implement them. Keep in mind that these are only a few samples 
of some of the strategies available (see Chapter 5 for a list of more strategies). 
I encourage you to find additional strategies or to develop your own 
unique adaptations of existing strategies. 

Teaching Strategies for Linguistic Intelligence 

Linguistic intelligence is perhaps the easiest intelligence to develop strategies 
for, because so much attention has been given to its cultivation in the 
schools. I do not include the traditional linguistic strategies involving textbooks, 
worksheets, and lectures among the five strategies discussed here, 
however, simply because they have been overused. This is not to say that 
textbooks, worksheets, and lectures should never be used. They serve as 
excellent channels for effectively imparting certain kinds of information. 
But they are only one small part of a vast repertoire of teaching strategies 
and not necessarily the most important part. Though used extensively in 
schools all over the United States, this trio of teaching techniques most 
easily reaches only a segment of the learning population: the most bookoriented 
and lecture-gifted students. The five strategies described below 
are accessible to a broader range of learners because they emphasize 
open-ended language activities that bring out the linguistic intelligence in 
every learner. 

Storytelling 

Storytelling has traditionally been seen as entertainment for children 
in the public library or during special enrichment times in the classroom. 
However, it should be viewed as a vital teaching tool, for so it has been in 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

cultures all over the world for thousands of years. When using storytelling 
in the classroom, you weave essential concepts, ideas, and instructional 
goals into a story that you tell directly to students. Although storytelling 
is usually thought of as a means of conveying knowledge in the humanities, 
it can be applied in mathematics and science as well. For example, to teach 
the idea of multiplication, you can tell students the story of brothers and 
sisters who have magical powers: whatever they touch multiplies (e.g., for 
the first child, it doubles; for the second, it triples; and so on). To convey 
the notion of centrifugal force, you can take students on a mythical 
journey to a land where everything spins around very rapidly from the center 
outward. 

Prepare for storytelling by listing the essential elements youd like to 
include in the story. Then use your imagination to create a special land, a 
group of colorful characters, or a whimsical plot to carry the message 
home. It may help to visualize the story at first and then practice telling it 
to a spouse or to a mirror. Stories neednt be especially original or fabulous 
for children to benefit from them. Students are often impressed simply by 
a teachers willingness to be creative and speak from the heart about a 
subject. 

Brainstorming 

Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky once said that a thought is like a cloud 
shedding a shower of words. During brainstorming, students produce a torrent 
of verbal thoughts that can be collected and put on the board or an overhead 
projector or entered into computer software such as Inspiration or 
Kidspiration. The brainstorming can be about anything: words for a class 
poem, ideas for developing a group project, thoughts about material in a lesson 
being taught, suggestions for a class picnic, and so forth. The general rules 
for brainstorming are: participants share whatever comes to mind that is relevant, 
no put-downs or criticisms of any idea are allowed, and every idea 
counts. You can place ideas at random on the board or screen or use a special 
system such as an outline, a mind-map, or a Venn diagram for organizing them. 
After everyone has had a chance to share, look for patterns or groupings in 
the ideas, invite students to reflect on the ideas, or use the ideas in a specific 
project (such as in a group poem). This strategy allows all students who have 
an idea to receive special acknowledgment for their original thoughts. 


MI Theory and Teaching Strategies 

Tape Recording 

Tape recorders or other audio recording devices, including some software, 
are among the most valuable learning tools in any classroom. This is 
because they offer students a medium through which to learn about their 
linguistic powers and help them employ verbal skills to communicate, solve 
problems, and express inner feelings. Students can use tape recorders to 
talk out loud about a problem they are attempting to solve or a project 
they are planning to do. In this way, they reflect upon their own problem-
solving processes or cognitive skills. They can also use tape recorders to 
prepare for writing, helping to loosen the soil, so to speak, of their topic. 
Students who are not good writers may also want to record their thoughts 
on tape as an alternative mode of expression. Some students may use the 
tape recorder to send oral letters to other students in the class, to share 
personal experiences, and to get feedback about how they are coming 
across to others in the classroom. 

Tape recorders can be used as collectors of information (e.g., in interviews) 
and as reporters of information (e.g., talking books). Tape recorders 
can also be used to provide information. For instance, one can be placed in 
each activity center so students can listen to information about the topic in 
that center. Every classroom should have tape recorders available, and 
teachers should plan on using them regularly to promote the growth of students 
minds. 

Journal Writing 

Keeping a personal journal involves students in making ongoing written 
records related to a specific domain. The domain can be broad and open-
ended (Write about anything youre thinking about or feeling during the 
class day) or quite specific (Use this journal to keep a simulated record of 
your life as a farmer during the 1800s as part of our history course). Journals 
can be kept in math (Write down your strategy for solving this problem), 
science (Keep a record of the experiments you do, hypotheses 
youre testing, and new ideas that emerge from your work), literature 
(Keep an ongoing record of your responses to the books youre reading), 
or other subjects. They can be kept entirely private, shared only between 
teacher and student, or regularly read to the class. They can also incorporate 
multiple intelligences by allowing drawings, sketches, photos, dialogues, 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

and other nonverbal data. (Note that this strategy also draws heavily upon 
intrapersonal intelligence insofar as students work individually and use the 
journal to reflect upon their lives.) 

Publishing 

In traditional classrooms, students complete papers that are turned in, 
graded, and then often thrown away. Many students exposed to this kind of 
routine begin to see writing as the dreary process of fulfilling an assignment. 
Educators ought to be sending students a different message: that writing is 
a powerful tool for communicating ideas and influencing people. By providing 
students with opportunities to publish and distribute their work, you 
can make this point in a strong way. 

Publishing takes many forms. Students can submit their writing to a 
class or school newspaper, a city newspaper, a childrens magazine, or 
some other publishing source that accepts student work. Students writing 
can also be published using desktop publishing software such as Microsoft 
Publisher, Print Shop, or Print Explosion and then bound in book form and 
made available in a special section of the class or school library. 

After publication, encourage interaction between the authors and the 
readers. You might even have special student autographing parties and 
book circles to discuss students writings. When children see that others 
care enough about their writing to reproduce it, discuss it, and even argue 
about it, they become linguistically empowered and are motivated to continue 
developing their writing craft. 

Teaching Strategies for Logical-Mathematical 
Intelligence 

Typically, logical-mathematical thinking is restricted to math and science 
courses. There are components of this intelligence, however, that are applicable 
throughout the curriculum. The emergence of the critical-thinking 
movement certainly suggests one broad way in which logical-mathematical 
intelligence has affected the social sciences and humanities. Similarly, the 
call for numeracy (the logical-mathematical equivalent of literacy) in our 
schools and, in particular, the recommendation that mathematics be applied 
to an interdisciplinary curriculum point to the wide application of this form 


MI Theory and Teaching Strategies 

of thinking to every part of the school day. The following are five major strategies 
for developing logical-mathematical intelligence that can be employed 
in all school subjects. 

Calculations and Quantifications 

In line with school reform efforts, teachers are being encouraged to discover 
opportunities to talk about numbers both inside and outside the math 
and science arena. In subjects such as history and geography, you may 
focus regularly on important statistics: lives lost in wars, populations of 
countries, and so forth. But how do you accomplish the same aim in literature? 
You shouldnt force connections that simply arent there. Its surprising, 
however, how many novels, short stories, and other literary works make 
reference to numbers. In a novel by Virginia Woolf, To the Lighthouse, there 
is a mention of 50 pounds to fix a greenhouse roof. How does that figure 
translate into U.S. dollars? In a short story by Doris Lessing, Through the 
Tunnel, a boy must count to see how long he can stay underwater and then 
compare that to the amount of time it takes experienced divers to swim 
through a submerged tunnel. Each of these passages provides the basis for 
mathematical thinking. Of course, you shouldnt feel compelled to make 
word problems out of great works of artthat would be stifling to say the 
least. It is a good idea, however, to keep alert for interesting numbers and 
intriguing math problems wherever they may be found. By tuning into the 
numbers in the midst of nonmathematical subjects, you can better engage 
highly logical students, and other students can learn to see that math 
belongs not just in math class but in life. 

Classifications and Categorizations 

The logical mind can be stimulated anytime information is put into 
some kind of rational framework, whether the data be linguistic, logical-
mathematical, spatial, or any other kind. For example, in a unit on the effects 
of climate on culture, students might brainstorm a random list of geographic 
locations and then classify them by type of climate (e.g., desert, mountain, 
plains, or tropical). Or, in a science unit on states of matter, the instructor 
might put the names of three categoriesgas, liquid, solidat the top of 
columns on the blackboard and then ask students to list examples of things 
belonging to each category. Other examples of logical frameworks include 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

Venn diagrams, time lines, attribute webs (listing the attributes of a person, 
place, or thing as spokes around the subject), 5W organizers (diagrams that 
answer who, what, when, where, and why questions), and mind-maps. Most 
of these frame works are also spatial in nature. The value of this approach is 
that disparate fragments of information can be organized around central 
ideas or themes, making them easier to remember, discuss, and think about. 

Socratic Questioning 

The critical-thinking movement has provided an important alternative to 
the traditional image of the teacher as knowledge dispenser. In Socratic 
questioning, the teacher serves as a questioner of students points of view. 
The Greek sage Socrates is the model for this type of instruction. Instead of 
talking at students, the teacher participates in dialogues with them, aiming 
to uncover the rightness or wrongness of their beliefs. Students share their 
hypotheses about how the world works, and the teacher guides the testing 
of these hypotheses for clarity, precision, accuracy, logical coherence, or 
relevance through artful questioning. A history student who declares that 
World War II never would have happened if soldiers had actively resisted 
military service has his point of view subjected to rigorous scrutiny in this 
approach to teaching. A student defending the motives of a character in 
Huckleberry Finn is carefully questioned to see if her stand is supported by 
the facts in the novel. The purpose is not to humiliate students or put them 
in the wrong but, rather, to help them sharpen their own critical thinking 
skills so that they no longer form opinions simply out of strong emotion or 
the passion of the moment (see Paul, 1992). 

Heuristics 

The field of heuristics refers to a loose collection of strategies, rules of 
thumb, guidelines, and suggestions for logical problem solving. In terms of 
this books goals, however, heuristics can be regarded as a major teaching/ 
learning strategy. Examples of heuristic principles include finding analogies 
to the problem you wish to solve, separating the various parts of the problem, 
proposing a possible solution to the problem and then working backward, 
and finding a problem related to yours and then solving it. While the 
most obvious applications of heuristics are in the math and science fields, 


MI Theory and Teaching Strategies 

heuristic principles can also be used in subjects other than these. In trying 
to envision solutions to the problems of government waste, for example, a 
student might look for analogies by asking himself what other entities create 
waste. While looking for the main idea in a reading passage, a student might 
separate out each part of the passage (into sentences) and subject each part 
to qualifying tests of a key point. Heuristics provides students with logical 
maps, so to speak, to help them find their way around unfamiliar academic 
terrain (see Polya, 1957). 

Science Thinking 

Just as you should look for mathematics in every part of the curriculum, 
so too should you seek out scientific ideas in areas other than science. This 
strategy is especially important given research showing that up to 70 percent 
of adults lack a fundamental understanding of the scientific process 
(Recer, 2002). There are ways to spread science thinking across the curriculum. 
For instance, students can study the influence important scientific 
ideas have had on history (e.g., how the development of the atomic bomb 
influenced the outcome of World War II). They can study science fiction with 
an eye toward discovering if the ideas described are feasible. They can learn 
about global issues such as AIDS, overpopulation, and the greenhouse effect 
that require some science background to be well understood. In each part 
of the curriculum, science provides another point of view that can considerably 
enrich students perspective. 

Teaching Strategies for Spatial Intelligence 

The cave drawings of prehistoric man are evidence that spatial learning has 
long been important to human beings. Unfortunately, in todays schools the 
sensory-channels model of presenting information to students through 
visual as well as auditory modes sometimes translates into simply writing 
on the board, a practice that is linguistic in nature. Spatial intelligence has 
to do with pictureseither the pictures in ones mind or the pictures in the 
external world, such as photos, movies, drawings, graphic symbols, ideographic 
languages, and so forth. Here are five teaching strategies designed 
to use students spatial intelligence for academic purposes. 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

Visualization 

One of the easiest ways to help students translate book and lecture material 
into pictures and images is to have them close their eyes and picture 
whatever is being studied. An application of this strategy involves having 
students create their own inner blackboard (or movie or video screen) in 
their minds eye. They can then place on this mental blackboard any material 
they need to remember: spelling words, math formulas, history facts, or other 
data. When asked to recall a specific body of information, students then need 
only call up their mental blackboard and see the data inscribed on it. 

A more open-ended application of this strategy involves having students 
close their eyes and see pictures of what theyve just read or studied 
(e.g., a story or a chapter in a textbook). Afterward, they can draw or talk 
about their experiences. Teachers can also lead students through more 
formal guided imagery sessions as a way of introducing them to new concepts 
or material (e.g., leading them on a guided tour through the circulatory 
system to learn anatomy). Students may experience nonspatial content 
as well during these activities (e.g., kinesthetic images, verbal images, or 
musical images). 

Color Cues 

Highly spatial students are often sensitive to color. Unfortunately, the 
school day is usually filled with black-and-white texts, copy books, worksheets, 
and chalkboards. There are, however, many creative ways to put 
color into the classroom as a learning tool. Use a variety of colors of chalk, 
markers, and transparencies when writing in front of the class. Provide students 
with colored pencils and pens and colored paper on which to write 
assignments. Students can learn to use different colored markers to color 
code material they are studying (e.g., mark all the key points in red, all the 
supporting data in green, all the unclear passages in orange). Use color to 
emphasize patterns, rules, or classifications during instruction (e.g., coloring 
all ths red in a phonics lesson, using different colors to write about distinct 
historical stages in Greek history). Finally, students can use their 
favorite colors as a stress reducer when coping with difficult problems (e.g., 
If you run into a word, problem, or idea you dont understand, imagine your 
favorite color filling your head; this can help you find the right answer or 
clarify things for yourself). 


MI Theory and Teaching Strategies 

Picture Metaphors 

A metaphor involves comparing one idea to another, seemingly unrelated 
idea. A picture metaphor expresses this concept in a visual image. 
Devel opmental psychologists suggest that young children are masters of 
metaphor (Gardner, 1979). Sadly, this capacity often diminishes as children 
grow older. However, educators can tap this underground stream (to use a 
metaphor!) to help students master new material. The educational value of 
using metaphors lies in establishing connections between what a student 
already knows and what is being presented. Think of the key point or main 
concept you want students to learn. Then, link that idea to a visual image. 
Construct the complete metaphor yourself (e.g., How is the development of 
the colonies during early American history like the growth of an amoeba?) 
or have students develop their own (e.g., If the major organs in the body 
were animals, which ones would they be?). 

Idea Sketching 

A review of some of the notebooks of eminent individuals in history, 
including Thomas Edison, Henry Ford, and Charles Darwin, reveals that 
these individuals used simple drawings in developing many of their powerful 
ideas. Teachers should recognize the value that this kind of visual thinking 
can have in helping students articulate their understanding of subject 
matter. The Idea Sketching strategy involves asking students to draw the 
key point, main idea, central theme, or core concept being taught. Neatness 
and realism should be de-emphasized in favor of a succession of quick 
sketches that help articulate an idea. 

To prepare students for this kind of drawing, it may be helpful to play 
the game Pictionary (or Pictionary Jr.) so students get used to the notion of 
making rapid drawings to convey central ideas. Then, begin to ask students 
to draw the concept or idea you want to focus on in a lesson. This strategy 
can be used to evaluate a students understanding of an idea, to emphasize 
a concept, or to give students ample opportunity to explore an idea in 
greater depth. Here are some examples of subjects or concepts you might 
have students choose to illustrate: the Great Depression, gravity, probability 
(in math), fractions, democracy, pathos (in a literary work), ecosystem, 
and continental drift. Following up the drawing activity with a discussion of 
the relationship between the drawings and the subject matter is important. 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

Do not evaluate the artistic quality of the drawings themselves; instead, seek 
to draw out students understanding from the sketches (see McKim, 1980). 

Graphic Symbols 

One of the most traditional teaching strategies involves writing words 
on a blackboard. Less common, especially after primary school, is drawing 
pictures on the board, even though pictures may be extremely important 
to the understanding of the spatially inclined student. Consequently, teachers 
who can support their teaching with drawings and graphic symbols, as 
well as words, may be reaching a wider range of learners. This strategy, 
then, requires you to practice drawing at least some part of your lessons 
for instance, by creating graphic symbols that depict the concepts to be 
learned. Here are some examples: 

 
Showing the three states of matter by drawing a solid mass (heavy 
chalk marks), a liquid mass (lighter curvy marks), and a gaseous mass 
(little dots) 
 
Indicating root words by putting little roots at the base of those 
words on the board 
 
Drawing a time line for a novels plot or historical event and marking 
the line not only with dates and names but also with pictures that 
symbolize events 
You do not need superior drawing skills to use this strategy. Roughly 
drawn graphic symbols will suffice in most cases. Your willingness to model 
imperfect drawing can actually serve as an example for students who feel 
shy about sharing their own drawing with the class. 

Teaching Strategies for Bodily-Kinesthetic 
Intelligence 

Students may leave their textbooks and folders behind when they leave 
school, but they take their bodies with them wherever they go. Consequently, 
finding ways to help students integrate learning at a gut level can 
be very important to increasing their retention, understanding, and interest. 
Traditionally, physical learning has been considered the province 
of physical education and vocational education. The following strategies, 


MI Theory and Teaching Strategies 

however, show how easy it is to integrate hands-on and kinesthetic learning 
activities into traditional academic subjects like reading, math, and 
science. 

Body Answers 

Ask students to respond to instruction by using their bodies as a 
medium of expression. The simplest and most overused example of this 
strategy is asking students to raise their hands to indicate understanding. 
This strategy can be varied in any number of ways, however. Instead of raising 
hands, students could smile, blink one eye, hold up fingers (one finger to 
indicate just a little understanding, five fingers to show complete understanding), 
make flying motions with their arms, and so forth. Students can 
provide body answers during a lecture (If you understand what Ive just 
said, put your finger on your temple; if you dont understand, scratch your 
head), while going through a textbook (Anytime you come to something in 
the text that seems outdated, I want you to frown), or in answering questions 
that have a limited number of answers (If you think this sentence has 
parallel construction, I want you to raise your two hands high like a referee 
indicating a touchdown; if you think its not parallel, put your hands together 
over your head like the peak of a house). 

Classroom Theater 

To bring out the actor in each of your students, ask them to enact the 
texts, problems, or other material to be learned by dramatizing or role-
playing the content. For example, students might dramatize a math problem 
involving three-step problem solving by putting on a three-act play. Classroom 
Theater can be as informal as a one-minute improvisation of a reading 
passage during class or as formal as a one-hour play at the end of the semester 
that sums up students understanding of a broad learning theme. It can 
be done without any materials, or it may involve substantial use of props. 
Students may themselves act in plays and skits, or they may produce puppet 
shows or dramatizations in miniature (e.g., showing how a battle was 
fought by putting miniature soldiers on a plywood battlefield and moving 
them around to show troop movements). To help older students who may 
initially feel reluctant to engage in dramatic activities, try some warm-up 
exercises (see Spolin, 1986). 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

Kinesthetic Concepts 

The game of charades has long been a favorite of partygoers because of 
the way it challenges participants to express knowledge in unconventional 
ways. The Kinesthetic Concepts strategy involves introducing students to 
concepts through physical illustrations or asking students to pantomime 
specific concepts or terms from the lesson. This strategy requires students 
to translate information from linguistic or logical symbol systems into 
purely bodily-kinesthetic expression. The range of subjects is endless. Here 
are just a few examples of concepts that might be expressed through physical 
gestures or movements: soil erosion, cell mitosis, political revolution, 
supply and demand, subtraction (of numbers), the epiphany (of a novel), 
and biodiversity in an ecosystem. Simple pantomimes can also be extended 
into more elaborate creative movement experiences or dances (such as 
dancing the periodic table of the elements). 

Hands-On Thinking 

Students who are highly developed in the fine-motor aspect of bodily-
kinesthetic intelligence should have opportunities to learn by manipulating 
objects or by making things with their hands. Many educators have already 
provided such opportunities by incorporating manipulatives (e.g., Cuisenaire 
rods) into math instruction and involving students in experiments or 
lab work in science. In thematic projects, too, students can use hands-on 
thinkingfor instance, in constructing adobe huts for a unit on Native 
American traditions or in building dioramas of the rain forest for an ecology 
theme. You can extend this general strategy into many other curricular 
areas as well. At a rote level, students can study spelling words or new 
vocabulary words by forming them in clay or with pipe cleaners. At a higher 
cognitive level, students can express complex concepts by creating clay or 
wood sculptures, collages, or other assemblages. For example, students 
could convey an understanding of the term deficit (in its economic sense) 
using only clay (or some other available material) and then share their productions 
during a class discussion. 

Body Maps 

The human body provides a convenient pedagogical tool when transformed 
into a reference point or map for specific knowledge domains. One 


MI Theory and Teaching Strategies 

of the most common examples of this approach is the use of fingers in 
counting and calculating (elaborate finger-counting systems such as Chisanbop 
have been adapted for classroom use). We can map out many other 
domains onto the body. In geography, for example, the body might represent 
the United States (if the head represents the northern United States, 
where is Florida located?). The body can also be used to map out a problem-
solving strategy in math. For example, in multiplying a two-digit number by 
a one-digit number, the feet could be the two-digit number, and the right 
knee could be the one-digit number. Students could then perform the following 
actions in solving the problem: tap the right knee and the right foot to 
get the first product (indicated by tapping the thighs); tap the right knee and 
the left foot to get the second product (indicated by tapping the stomach); 
tap the thighs and the stomach (to indicate adding the two products), and 
tap the head (to indicate the final product). By repeating physical movements 
that represent a specific process or idea, students can gradually 
internalize the process or idea. 

Teaching Strategies for Musical Intelligence 

For thousands of years, knowledge was imparted from generation to generation 
through the medium of singing or chanting. In the 20th century, advertisers 
have discovered that musical jingles help people remember their 
clients product. Educators, however, have been slower to recognize the 
importance of music in learning. As a result, most of us have thousands of 
commercial musical jingles in our long-term memory but relatively few 
school-related musical pieces. The following strategies will help you begin 
to integrate music into the core curriculum. 

Rhythms, Songs, Raps, and Chants 

Take the essence of whatever you are teaching and put it into a rhythmic 
format that can be either sung, rapped, or chanted. At a rote level, this can 
mean spelling words to the rhythm of a metronome or singing the times 
tables to the tune of a popular song. You can also identify the main point you 
want to emphasize in a lecture, the main idea of a story, or the central theme 
of a concept and then place it in a rhythmic format. For example, to teach 
John Lockes concept of Natural Law, one-half of the class can chant natural 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

law, natural law, natural law, natural law . . . , while the other half repeats: 
life, li-ber-ty, happ-i-ness, life, li-ber-ty, happ-i-ness . . . . Inviting students 
themselves to create songs, raps, or chants that summarize, synthesize, or 
apply meanings from subjects they are studying moves students to an even 
higher level of learning. This strategy can also be enhanced through the 
addition of percussion or other musical instruments. 

Discographies 

Supplement your bibliographies for the curriculum with lists of recorded 
musical selectionstapes, compact discs, MP3 files, and other audio for-
matsthat illustrate, embody, or amplify the content you want to convey. 
For example, in developing a unit about the Civil War, you could collect 
songs related to that period in history, including When Johnny Comes 
Marching Home Again, Tenting Tonight, The Battle Hymn of the Republic, 
and the more contemporary The Night They Drove Old Dixie Down. 
After listening to the recordings, the class can discuss the content of the 
songs in relation to the themes of the unit. 

Additionally, you can find recorded musical phrases, songs, or pieces 
that sum up in a compelling way the key point or main message of a lesson 
or unit. For example, to illustrate Newtons first law of motion (a body 
remains in its state of rest unless it is compelled to change that state by a 
force impressed on it), you could play the first few lines of Sammy Davis Jr.s 
version of Somethings Gotta Give (When an irresistible force such as 
you . . .). Such musical concepts are often effective openers (providing an 
anticipatory set or hook) to a lesson. 

Supermemory Music 

Twenty-five years ago, educational researchers in eastern Europe discovered 
that students could more easily commit information to memory if 
they listened to the teachers instruction against a musical background. 
Baroque and classical musical selections in 4/4 time were found to be particularly 
effective (e.g., Pachelbels Canon in D and the Largo movements of 
concertos by Handel, Bach, Telemann, and Corelli). Students should be in a 
relaxed state (putting heads on desks or lying on the floor) while the teacher 
rhythmically gives the information to be learned (e.g., spelling or vocabulary 


MI Theory and Teaching Strategies 

words, history facts, science terms) against the musical background (see 
Rose, 1987). 

Musical Concepts 

Musical tones can be used as a creative tool for expressing concepts, 
patterns, or schemas in many subjects. For example, to convey musically 
the idea of a circle, begin humming at a certain tone, drop the tone gradually 
(indicating the gradual slope of the circle) to a low note, and then gradually 
move up toward the original tone. You can use similar techniques to express 
cosines, ellipses, and other mathematical shapes. You can also use rhythms 
to express ideas. For example, in a lesson on Shakespeares Romeo and 
Juliet, you can pit the rhythms of the Montagues and the Capulets against 
each other to suggest the two families in conflict, while in the midst of those 
rhythms, two quieter musical patterns can be heard coming into harmony 
with each other (Romeo and Juliet). This strategy offers ample opportunity 
for creative expression from both teachers and students. 

Mood Music 

Locate recorded music that creates an appropriate mood or emotional 
atmosphere for a particular lesson or unit. Such music can even include 
sound effects (nonverbal sounds are processed through the musical intellect), 
nature sounds, or classical or contemporary pieces that facilitate 
specific emotional states. For example, just before students are about to 
read a story that takes place near the sea, play a recording of sea sounds 
(waves crashing up against the shore, sea gulls crying, etc.) or La Mer (The 
Sea) by Claude Debussy. (See Bonny & Savary, 1990, for more information 
on music and the mind.) 

Teaching Strategies for Interpersonal Intelligence 

Some students need time to bounce their ideas off other people if they are 
to function optimally in the classroom. These social learners have benefited 
most from the emergence of cooperative learning. But since all children 
have interpersonal intelligence to one degree or another, every educator 
should be aware of teaching approaches that incorporate interaction with 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

and among people. The following strategies can help tap each students 
need for belonging and connection to others. 

Peer Sharing 

Sharing is perhaps the easiest of the MI strategies to implement. All you 
need to do is say to students, Turn to a person near you and share _______. 
The blank space can be filled with virtually any topic. You might want students 
to process material just covered in class (Share a question you have 
about what I just presented). Or you might want to begin a lesson or unit 
with peer sharing to unlock students existing knowledge about the topic 
under study (Share three things that you know about the early settlers in 
America). You may want to set up a buddy system so each student shares 
with the same person each time. Or you may want to encourage students 
to share with different members of the class so that by the end of the year, 
each person has formed a sharing partnership with every student in the 
classroom. Sharing periods can be short (30 seconds) or extended (up to 
an hour or more). Peer sharing can also evolve into peer tutoring (one student 
coaching or teaching specific material to another student) or cross-
age tutoring (an older student working with a younger student in a different 
class). 

People Sculptures 

Anytime students are brought together to collectively represent in 
physical form an idea, a concept, or some other specific learning goal, there 
is the possibility for a people sculpture to exist. If students are studying the 
skeletal system, they can build a people sculpture of a skeleton in which 
each person represents a bone or group of bones. For a unit on inventions, 
students can create people sculptures of different inventions, complete with 
moving parts. In algebra class, students can create people sculptures of different 
equations, each person representing either a number or a function in 
the equation. Similarly, in language arts, students can build people sculptures 
to represent spelling words (each person holding up a letter), sentences 
(each student representing a word), or whole paragraphs (each 
person taking responsibility for a complete sentence). Assign a student to 
help direct the activity, or let the components of the sculpture organize 
themselves. The beauty of this approach is in having people represent 


MI Theory and Teaching Strategies 

things that were formerly represented only in books or lectures. People 
sculptures raise learning out of its remote theoretical context and put it into 
an immediately accessible social setting. 

Cooperative Groups 

The use of small groups working toward common instructional goals is 
the core component of the cooperative learning model. Such groups generally 
work most effectively when they have three to eight members. Students 
in cooperative groups can tackle a learning assignment in a variety of ways. 
The group may work collectively on a written assignment, for example, with 
each member contributing ideasmuch as screenwriters work when preparing 
a television episode or as scientists do in preparing a scientific paper. 
The group may also divide its responsibilities in a number of ways. In one 
case, the group may assign activities based upon the structure of the assignment, 
with one member doing the introduction, another taking care of the 
middle section, and another contributing the conclusion. Or groups may use 
a jigsaw strategy and assign each student responsibility for a particular 
book or subtopic. Alternatively, they may assign different roles among group 
members, so that one person does the writing, a second reviews the writing 
for spelling and punctuation errors, a third reads the report to the class, and 
a fourth leads the ensuing discussion. 

Cooperative groups are particularly suitable for MI teaching because 
they can be structured to include students who represent the full spectrum 
of intelligences. For instance, a group charged with the task of creating a 
videotaped presentation might include a socially developed student to 
help organize the group, a linguistically inclined member to do the writing, 
a spatially oriented student to do the drawing, a bodily-kinesthetically 
disposed student to create props or be a leading actor, and so forth. Cooper 
ative groups provide students with a chance to operate as a social 
unitan important prerequisite for successful functioning in real-life work 
environments. 

Board Games 

Board games are a fun way for students to learn in the context of an 
informal social setting. On one level, students are chatting, discussing rules, 
throwing dice, and laughing. On another level, however, they are engaged in 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

learning whatever skill or subject happens to be the focus of the game. Board 
games can be easily made using manila file folders, magic markers (to create 
the typical winding road or path), a pair of dice, and miniature cars, people, 
or colored cubes (available at toy stores or at teacher supply stores) to 
serve as game pieces. Topics can include a wide range of subjects, from math 
facts and phonics skills to rain forest data and history questions. The information 
to be learned can be placed on the individual squares of the winding 
road (e.g., the math fact 5  7) or on cards made from tag board or thick 
construction paper. Answers can be provided in a number of ways: on a 
separate answer key, from a specially designated answer person, or on the 
board squares or cards themselves (glue a tiny piece of folded paper to each 
square; on the top flap write the question or problem and on the bottom flap, 
the answer; players then simply open the flap to read the answer). 

You can also design board games that involve quick open-ended or 
activity-oriented tasks. Simply place the directions or activities on each 
square or card (e.g., Explain what you would do to control pollution if you 
were president of the United States or Look up the word threshold in the 
dictionary). 

Simulations 

A simulation involves a group of people coming together to create an 
as-if environment. This temporary setting becomes the context for getting 
into more immediate contact with the material to be learned. For example, 
students studying a historical period might actually dress up in costumes of 
that era, turn the classroom into a place that might have existed then, and 
begin acting as if they were living in that time. Similarly, in learning about 
geographical regions or ecosystems, students could turn the classroom into 
a simulated jungle or rain forest. 

Simulations can be quick and improvisational in nature, with the teacher 
providing an instant scenario to act out: Okay, youve just gotten off the 
boat from your trip to the New World and youre all standing around 
together. Begin the action! Or they can be ongoing and require substantial 
preparation, such as props, costumes, and other paraphernalia to support 
the illusion of a particular era or region of the world. 

Although this strategy involves several intelligences (including bodily-
kinesthetic, linguistic, and spatial), it is included in the interpersonal section 
because the human interactions that take place help students develop a new 


MI Theory and Teaching Strategies 

level of understanding. Through conversation and other interactions, students 
begin to get an insiders view of the topic they are studying. 

Teaching Strategies for Intrapersonal Intelligence 

Most students spend about six hours a day, five days a week in a classroom 
with 25 to 35 other people. For individuals with strongly developed intrapersonal 
intelligence and an introverted personality, this intensely social 
atmosphere can be somewhat claustrophobic. Hence, teachers need to 
build in frequent opportunities during the day for students to experience 
themselves as autonomous beings with unique life histories and a sense of 
deep individuality. Each of the following strategies helps accomplish this 
aim in a slightly different way. 

One-Minute Reflection Periods 

During lectures, discussions, project work, or other activities, students 
should have frequent time outs for introspection or focused thinking. One-
minute reflection periods offer students time to digest the information presented 
or to connect it to happenings in their own lives. They also provide 
a refreshing change of pace that helps students stay alert and ready for the 
next activity. 

A one-minute reflection period can occur anytime during the school day, 
but it may be particularly useful after the presentation of information that is 
especially challenging or central to the curriculum. During this one-minute 
period (which can be extended or shortened to accommodate differing 
attention spans), there is to be no talking and students are to simply think 
about what has been presented in any way theyd like. Silence is usually the 
best environment for reflection, but you occasionally might try using background 
thinking music as an option. Also, students should not feel compelled 
to share what they thought about, but this activity can be combined 
with Peer Sharing to make it both an intra- and interpersonal activity. 

Personal Connections 

The big question that accompanies strongly intrapersonal students 
through their school career is: What does all this have to do with my life? 
Most students have probably asked this question in one way or another during 
their time in school. Its up to teachers to help answer this question by 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

continually making connections between what is being taught and the personal 
lives of their students. This strategy, then, asks you to weave students 
personal associations, feelings, and experiences into your instruction. You 
may do so through questions (How many of you have ever. . . ?), statements 
(You may wonder what this has to do with your lives. Well, if you 
ever plan on . . . ), or requests (Id like you to think back in your life to a 
time when . . . ). For instance, to introduce a lesson on the skeletal system, 
you might ask, How many people here have ever broken a bone? Students 
then share stories and experiences before going on to the anatomy lesson 
itself. Or, for a lesson on world geography, you might ask, Has anybody 
ever been to another country? What country? Students then identify the 
countries theyve visited and locate them on the map. 

Choice Time 

Giving students choices is as much a fundamental principle of good 
teaching as it is a specific intrapersonal teaching strategy. Essentially, choice 
time consists of building in opportunities for students to make decisions 
about their learning experiences. Making choices is like lifting weights. The 
more frequently students choose from a group of options, the thicker their 
responsibility muscles become. The choices may be small and limited 
(You can choose to work on the problems on page 12 or 14), or they may 
be significant and open-ended (Select the kind of project youd like to do 
this semester). Choices may be related to content (Decide which topic 
youd like to explore) or to process (Choose from this list a method of 
presenting your final project). Choices may be informal and spur of the 
moment (Okay, would you rather stop now or continue talking about 
this?), or they may be carefully developed and highly structured (as in the 
use of a learning contract for each student). How do you currently provide 
for choice in your classroom? Think of ways to expand the choice-making 
experiences your students have in school. 

Feeling-Toned Moments 

One of the sadder findings of John Goodlads A Study of Schooling 
(2004) was that most of the 1,000 classrooms observed had few experiences 
of true feelingthat is, expressions of excitement, amazement, anger, 
joy, or caring. All too often, teachers present information to students in an 


MI Theory and Teaching Strategies 

emotionally neutral way. Yet we know that human beings possess an emotional 
brain consisting of several subcortical structures (see Goleman, 
2006). To feed that emotional brain, educators need to teach with feeling. 
This strategy suggests that educators are responsible for creating moments 
in teaching where students laugh, feel angry, express strong opinions, get 
excited about a topic, or feel a wide range of other emotions. You can help 
create feeling-toned moments in a number of ways: first, by modeling those 
emotions yourself as you teach; second, by making it safe for students to 
have feelings in the classroom (giving permission, discouraging criticism, 
and acknowledging feelings when they occur); and finally, by providing 
experiences (such as movies, books, and controversial ideas) that evoke 
feeling-toned reactions. 

Goal-Setting Sessions 

One of the characteristics of highly developed intrapersonal learners is 
their capacity to set realistic goals for themselves. This ability certainly has 
to be among the most important skills necessary for leading a successful life. 
Consequently, educators help students immeasurably in their preparation 
for life when they provide opportunities for setting goals. These goals may 
be short-term (I want everybody to list three things theyd like to learn 
today) or long-term (Tell me what you see yourself doing 25 years from 
now). The goal-setting sessions may last only a few minutes, or they may 
involve in-depth planning over several months time. The goals themselves 
can relate to academic outcomes (What grades are you setting for yourself 
this term?), wider learning outcomes (What do you want to know how to 
do by the time you graduate?), or life goals (What kind of occupation do 
you see yourself involved with after you leave school?). Try to allow time 
every day for students to set goals for themselves. You may also want to 
show students different ways of representing those goals (through words, 
pictures, etc.) and methods for charting their progress along the way 
(through graphs, charts, journals, and time lines). 

Teaching Strategies for Naturalist Intelligence 

Most of classroom instruction takes place inside of a school building. For 
children who learn best through nature, this arrangement cuts them off 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

from their most valued source of learning. There are two primary solutions 
to this dilemma. First, more learning needs to take place for these kids outside 
in natural settings. Second, more of the natural world needs to be 
brought into the classroom and other areas of the school building, so that 
naturalistically inclined students might have greater access to developing 
their naturalist intelligence while inside of the school building. The strategies 
that have been selected for inclusion here are all drawn from one or 
both of these approaches. 

Nature Walks 

The Nobel Prizewinning physicist Richard Feynman once wrote that he 
got his start along the path of science by taking walks in nature with his 
father. It was from the kind of questions that his father would ask him as they 
walked along (e.g., What animal do you think made that hole over there?) 
that his own scientific questioning attitude was formed. In similar fashion, 
teachers might consider the benefit of a walk in the woods (or whatever 
other natural features are available within walking distance of your school) 
as a way of reinforcing material being learned inside of the classroom. Virtually 
any subject lends itself to a nature walk. Science and math, of course, 
can be examined in the various principles at work in the growth of plants, 
the weather above, the earth below, and the animals that scurry or fly about. 
If youre teaching a piece of literature or a history lesson that involves any 
kind of natural setting (and most do at least somewhere along the way), then 
you might use a nature walk as an opportunity to reconstruct a scene or two 
from the story or period of history (Imagine that this is the meadow where 
the Pickwick Club had their ridiculous duel in Dickenss Pickwick Papers or 
Picture this as the setting of the Battle of Hastings just before the troops 
arrived on the scene). Also, nature walks make a superb preparation for 
getting your class ready to do creative writing, drawing, or other activities. 

Windows onto Learning 

One of the classic images of an inattentive student in the classroom is 
of a child sitting at a desk looking wistfully out the window while, presumably, 
fantasizing about what shed rather be doing! Why do kids want to 
look out the window? All too often, its because what they see out there is 
more interesting than what is going on in the classroom. If this is true, then 


MI Theory and Teaching Strategies 

why not use this off-task tendency in students as a positive classroom 
strategy? In other words, looking out the window is a technique that 
instructors can use to further the curriculum. What can be accomplished, 
pedagogically speaking, by looking out a window? There are many possibilities, 
including weather study (have a class weather station to make measurements), 
bird watching (have binoculars handy), understanding time 
(study the seasons effects on the trees, grass, plants, etc.), and creative 
writing (have students create metaphors based on nature in their writing). 
In fact, looking out a window can be used as a strategy for just about any 
subject. As with nature walks, looking out a window can be used to set a 
scene for literature or history or for scientific observation. Other subjects 
can take whats beyond the window as a starting point, a place to briefly 
stop during a lesson, or a final stopping point. Examples include geology 
or geography (What nature features do you see in the earth or along the 
horizon?), economics (Investigate the cost of planting the trees just outside 
the window), social studies (How well designed is the area just outside 
the window for human beings?), and literature (As we finish this 
story, I want you to look out the window and imagine our protagonist walking 
between the trees there into the distance). 

Of course, if you dont have windows in your classroom or your windows 
look out onto other classrooms or expanses of concrete (a lamentable 
consequence of using architects who have little of the naturalist in them), 
then its not possible to fully realize the possibilities of this strategy. However, 
even then, you might use the Visualization strategy from spatial intelligence 
to help your students imagine that they do have imaginary windows 
that they can look out of to gain at least some semblance of connection to 
the natural world! 

Plants as Props 

If you cant go out of the classroom on nature walks and dont have windows 
in your classroom through which to look at nature, then the next viable 
alternative is to bring nature into your classroom. Many teachers have 
adorned their windowsills or shelves with house plants simply to create a 
positive ambiance for learning. However, it is also useful to consider the 
practical advantage of using plants as learning tools. The fact that the petals 
of flowers in bloom, for example, often come in multiples is an opportunity 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

to examine the concept of multiplication in a natural setting. Plants can make 
useful props as background scenery for the Classroom Theater and People 
Sculpture strategies described earlier in this chapter. In teaching about the 
branches of government, you can use a nearby branching plant as a naturalistic 
metaphor to illustrate the concept. In science and math, the growth of 
classroom plants can be measured. In history, their function or usefulness 
as herbal medicines, foods, or even poisons might be considered. Assigning 
a particularly difficult child with a naturalistic bent the job of taking care of 
a plant in the classroom can be a useful way to redirect his or her energies. 
Finally, I love the idea of using the image of plant growth as a metaphor for 
the learning that is going on in the classroomat the beginning of the year, 
bring in a sprout of a plant, and at the end of the year, point out to the class 
how much both the plant and the students have grown during the year! 

Pet-in-the-Classroom 

Many elementary school classrooms already have a class pet kept in a 
gerbil cage, a rabbit hutch, or some other species-appropriate container. 
This strategy underlines how important this particular addition to the classroom 
is in terms of sheer instructional value. First of all, having a pet in the 
classroom automatically creates for many naturalistically inclined students 
a safe place where they can go to have a relationship to the natural world 
and to feel a sense of caring for natures beings (some of these kids may 
be our future veterinarians!). Second, many specific instructional uses can 
come from having a pet in the classroom. The scientific skill of observation 
can be developed by having kids keep notes on a pets behavior. (The naturalist 
Jane Goodall traces her own love of animals back to an incident at 5 
years old where she stayed in a chicken coop for five hours just to see how 
chickens lay eggs!) Kids can keep math records on their pets food intake, 
weight, and other vital statistics. For high school classrooms, teachers can 
use a class pet as a kind of alter ego for the classroom in posing instructional 
questions (e.g., How do you think our rabbit Albert would feel about 
the problem of world hunger?). Students who relate best to the world 
through their love of animals might well use Alberts persona in giving voice 
to their own thinking on the matter. Having a pet in the classroom creates a 
sort of reality check for teachers and students alike, reminding us of our 


MI Theory and Teaching Strategies 

own connection to the animal world and our need sometimes to learn from 
the wisdom of our pets! 

Eco-study 

Implied in the concluding statement of the last strategy is the importance 
of having a sense of respect for the natural world. This is the core idea 
behind the next strategy: Eco-study. This strategy essentially means that 
whatever we are teaching, whether it is history, science, math, literature, 
geography, social studies, art, music, or any other subject, we should keep 
in mind its relevance to the ecology of the earth. In essence, what Im suggesting 
here is that ecology shouldnt just be a unit, course, or topic isolated 
from the rest of the curriculum but that it be integrated into every part 
of the school day. So, for example, if the topic is fractions or percentages, 
the teacher can ask students to investigate the fraction of a particular 
endangered species that exists today as opposed to, say, 50 years ago or the 
percentage of rain forest left in Brazil compared to what it was in 1900. If the 
subject is how a bill goes through Congress, students might consider an 
actual bill having an ecological focus that went through each stage of the 
process. Or, if a teacher has the option of choosing literature, then a dramatic 
work like Ibsens An Enemy of the Peoplean ecological play written 
before its timemight be assigned or even acted out by the students. For 
students who are humanitys earth angels (those with a particular sensitivity 
to ecological issues), this sort of strategy can help draw them into the 
curriculum and at the same time stimulate all students to take a deeper 
interest in the welfare of our planets diminishing natural resources. 

For Further Study 


1. Select three strategies from this chapter that intrigue you and that 
you havent already used in your classroom. Do background reading or consult 
with colleagues as needed, and develop specific lesson plans that 
describe exactly how you will apply the strategies. Try out your lessons and 
then evaluate the results. What worked, and what didnt work? How would 
you modify each strategy in the future to make it more successful? 

Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

2. Choose an intelligence that you usually dont address in your instruction 
and research additional strategies (not mentioned above) to use in your 
teaching (consult the list of strategies in Chapter 5 and the resources list in 
Appendix B for more sources of ideas). 
3. Develop a broad learning experience for your students that incorporates 
at least one of the strategies for each intelligence in this chapter. For 
instance, develop a unit that involves body sculptures, mood music, feeling-
toned moments, peer sharing, brainstorming, color coding, and quantifications 
and calculations. Work alone or as part of an interdisciplinary team. 

7 

MI Theory and the 
Classroom Environment 

Nowhere else [but in schools] are large groups of individuals packed so closely 
together for so many hours, yet expected to perform at peak efficiency on difficult 
learning tasks and to interact harmoniously. 

Carol Weinstein 

For most Americans, the word classroom conjures up an image of students 
sitting in neat rows of desks facing the front of the room, where a 
teacher either sits at a large desk correcting papers or stands near a blackboard 
lecturing to students. This is certainly one way to organize a classroom, 
but it is by no means the only way or the best way. The theory of 
multiple intelligences suggests that the classroom environmentor classroom 
ecology, if you willmay need to be fundamentally restructured to 
accommodate the needs of different kinds of learners. 

MI and Ecological Factors in Learning 

At a minimum, MI theory provides a template through which educators can 
view some of the critical ecological factors in learning. Each intelligence, in 
fact, provides a context for asking some searching questions about those 

99 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

factors in the classroom that promote or interfere with learning and those 
elements absent from the room that could be incorporated to facilitate student 
progress. A review of the eight intelligences reveals some of the following 
questions: 

Linguistic 

 
How are spoken words used in the classroom? Are the words used by 
the teacher too complex or too simple for the students level of understanding, 
or is there a good match? 
 
How are students exposed to the written word? Are words represented 
on the walls (through posters, quotations, etc.)? Are written 
words presented through primary sources (e.g., novels, newspapers, 
historical documents) or through textbooks and workbooks written 
by committees? 
 
Is there too much linguistic pollution in class (endless exposure to 
dittos and busy work), or are students being empowered to develop 
their own linguistic materials? 
Logical-Mathematical 

 
How is time structured in the classroom? Do students have opportunities 
to work on long-term projects without being interrupted, or must 
they continually break off their activities to move on to a new topic? 
 
Is the school day sequenced to make optimum use of students attention 
spans (morning best for focused academic work, afternoon best 
for more open-ended activities), or do students have to perform under 
conditions that dont match changes in their attention span? 
 
Is there some consistency to students school days (e.g., routines, 
rituals, rules, effective transitions to new activities), or is there a 
sense of chaos or of reinventing the wheel with the start of each new 
school day? 
Spatial 

 
How is the classroom furniture arranged? Are there different spatial 
configurations to accommodate different learning needs (e.g., desks 
for written work, tables for discussion or hands-on work, carrels for 

MI Theory and the Classroom Environment 

independent study), or is there only one arrangement (e.g., straight 
rows of desks)? 

 
Is the room attractive to the eye (e.g., artwork on the walls), or is it 
visually boring or disturbing? 
 
Are students exposed to a variety of visual experiences (e.g., optical 
illusions, cartoons, illustrations, movies, great art), or does the classroom 
environment function as a visual desert? 
 
Do the colors of the room (walls, floors, ceiling) stimulate or deaden 
students interest in learning? 
 
What kinds of illumination are used (fluorescent, incandescent, natural)? 
Do the sources of light refresh students or leave them feeling 
distracted and drained? 
 
Is there a feeling of spaciousness in the learning environment, or do 
students feel stressed in part due to overcrowding and lack of privacy? 
Bodily-Kinesthetic 

 
Do students spend most of their time sitting at their desks with little 
opportunity for movement, or do they have frequent opportunities to 
get up and move around (e.g., through exercise breaks, hands-on activities, 
role-play, etc.)? 
 
Do students receive healthy snacks and a well-designed breakfast or 
lunch during the day to keep their bodies active and their minds alert, 
or do they eat junk food during recess and have high-fat, low-nutrition 
cafeteria meals? 
 
Are there materials in the classroom that allow students to manipulate, 
build, be tactile, or in other ways gain hands-on experience, or 
does a dont touch ethos pervade the room? 
Musical 

 
Does the auditory environment promote learning (e.g., background 
music, white noise, pleasant environmental sounds, silence), or do 
disturbing noises frequently interfere with learning (e.g., loud buzzers 
or bells, aircraft overhead, car and truck noises outside, industrial 
machines)? 
 
How does the teacher use his or her voice? Does it vary in intensity, 
inflection, and emphasis, or does it have a dull monotone quality that 

Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

puts students to sleep (like Ben Steins voice in the movie Ferris Buellers 
Day Off)? 

Interpersonal 

 
Does an atmosphere of belonging and trust permeate the classroom, 
or do students feel alienated, distant, or mistrustful of one another? 
 
Are there established procedures for mediating conflict between class 
members, or must problems often be referred to a higher authority 
(e.g., the principal) for resolution? 
 
Do students have frequent opportunities to interact in positive ways 
(e.g., peer teaching, discussions, group projects, cooperative learning, 
parties), or are students relatively isolated from one another? 
Intrapersonal 

 
Do students have opportunities to work independently, develop self-
paced projects, and find time and space for privacy during the day, or 
are they continually interacting? 
 
Are students exposed to experiences that heighten their self-concept 
(e.g., self-esteem exercises, genuine praise and other positive reinforcement, 
frequent success experiences in their school work), or are 
they subjected to put-downs, failures, and other negative emotional 
experiences? 
 
Do students have the opportunity to share feelings in the classroom, 
or is the inner life of a student considered off limits? 
 
Are students with emotional difficulties referred to mental health professionals 
for support, or are they simply left to fend for themselves? 
 
Are students given authentic choices in how they are to learn, or do 
they have only two choices: My way or the highway? 
Naturalist 

 
Are students given an opportunity to do some of their learning outside 
of the school building in natural settings (e.g., field trips, gardening, 
having class on the lawn), or do they remain isolated from the natural 
world during most of their school day? 

MI Theory and the Classroom Environment 

 
Does the classroom contain any living things (e.g., pets, fish, gerbils, 
plants), or is the occasional fly the only nonhuman living thing to enter 
its portals? 
 
Does the classroom provide windows that look out onto the sky, 
clouds, trees, lawns, or other natural phenomena, or is it windowless 
and shut off from any contact with the world of nature? 
The answers to the above questions will provide a telling commentary 
on the quality of the learning environment available to students in school. If 
answers consistently tilt toward the negative side of the ecology ledger, 
then learning is apt to be significantly impaired, even if students come into 
the classroom able, willing, and excited to learn. On the other hand, answers 
that tend toward the positive factors listed above will enhance a classroom 
environment to the point where even students who enter the room with 
significant academic, emotional, or cognitive difficulties will have an opportunity 
to feel stimulated toward making great strides in their learning. 

MI Activity Centers 

In addition to the kinds of general ecological factors described above, there 
are more specific applications of MI theory to the classroom environment. 
These focus upon organizing the classroom in such a way that areas of the 
room are dedicated to specific intelligences. Although students can certainly 
engage in MI activities while seated at their desks, the use of long 
periods of seat time places significant limits on the kinds of MI experiences 
they can have. Restructuring the classroom to create intelligence-friendly 
areas or activity centers can greatly expand the parameters for student 
exploration in each domain.* Activity centers can take a variety of forms, as 
illustrated in Figure 7.1. This figure shows MI activity centers existing along 
two axes, from permanent to temporary centers (Axis A) and from open-
ended to topic-specific centers (Axis B). 

*Write Project Zero (Harvard Graduate School of Education, 321 Longfellow Hall, 13 Appian Way, 
Cambridge, MA 02138; Web address: http://www.pz.harvard.edu; e-mail: info@pz.harvard.edu) for 
information about Project Spectrums use of activity centers for preschool children, and visit the 
New Horizons for Learning Web site (http://www.newhorizons.org) for information about Bruce 
Campbells use of MI activity centers at the elementary school level (see also Campbell & Campbell, 
2000). 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

7.1 
Types of Activity Centers 
Quadrant 1: 
Permanent Open-Ended 
Activity Center 
Permanent 
Quadrant 4: 
Permanent Topic-Specific 
Activity Center 
Axis A 
Quadrant 2: 
Temporary Open-Ended 
Activity Center 
Open-Ended 
Quadrant 3: 
Temporary Topic-Specific 
Activity Centers 
Topic-Specific 
Axis BTemporary 

Permanent Open-Ended Activity Centers 

Quadrant 1 of Figure 7.1 represents permanent (usually year-long) centers 
designed to provide students with a wide range of open-ended experiences 
in each intelligence. Here are some examples of such centers for each 
intelligence (with a very partial list of suggested items): 

Linguistic 

 Book nook or library area (with comfortable seating) 
 Language lab (audio files, earphones, talking books) 
 Writing center (typewriters, word processing software, paper) 
Logical-Mathematical 

 Math lab (calculators, manipulatives) 
 Science center (chemistry set, microscope, measurement materials) 

MI Theory and the Classroom Environment 

Spatial 

 
Art area (paints, collage materials, draw and paint software) 
 
Visual media center (videos, animation software, videocams) 
 
Visual-thinking area (maps, graphs, visual puzzles, picture library, 
three-dimensional building materials) 
Bodily-Kinesthetic 

 
Open space for creative movement (mini-trampoline, juggling 
equipment) 
 
Hands-on center (clay, carpentry, blocks) 
 
Tactile-learning area (relief maps, samples of different textures, sandpaper 
letters) 
 
Drama center (stage for performances, puppet theater) 
Musical 

 
Music lab (audio files of sound effects, earphones, music library) 
 
Music performance center (percussion instruments, audio recorder, 
metronome) 
 
Listening lab (stethoscope, walkie-talkies, small bottles containing different 
mystery sounds when shaken) 
Interpersonal 

 
Round table for group discussions 
 
Desks paired together for peer teaching 
 
Social area (board games, comfortable furniture for informal social 
gatherings) 
Intrapersonal 

 
Study carrels for individual work 
 
Loft (with nooks and crannies for privacy) 
 
Computer hutch (for self-paced study) 

Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

Naturalist 

 
Plant center with gardening tools and supplies 
 
Animal center with a gerbil or rabbit cage, a terrarium, or an ant 
farm 
 
Aquatic center with an aquarium and tools for measuring and observing 
marine life 
Clear labeling of each of these activity centers with explicit MI nomenclature 
(e.g., Linguistic Intelligence Center, Picture Smart Center, Naturalists 
Corner) will reinforce students understanding of MI theory. You 
may want to explain that the centers are named for the intelligence that is 
used most often in each center. Remember from Chapter 1 that intelligences 
are always interacting, so students dont have to switch activity centers if, 
for example, they want to add a picture to the writing theyre doing in the 
Word Smart Center. 

Temporary Topic-Specific Activity Centers 

In Quadrant 3 of Figure 7.1, diagonally across from Quadrant 1, are topic-
specific activity centers that change frequently and are geared toward a 
particular theme or subject. For example, if students are studying a unit on 
housing, you may create eight different centers that involve students in 
meaningful activities within each intelligence. The activities for the housing 
unit might include the following: 

 
LinguisticA Reading Center where students read books on houses 
and write about what theyve read 
 
Logical-mathematicalA Computing Center where students compare 
the costs, square footage, or other statistical measurements of different 
houses 
 
SpatialA Drawing Center where students can design a futuristic 
house 
 
Bodily-kinestheticA Building Center where students create a model 
of a house using balsa wood and glue 
 
MusicalA Music Center where students listen to songs about dwellings 
(e.g., This Old House, Yellow Submarine) and make up their 
own songs 

MI Theory and the Classroom Environment 

 
InterpersonalAn Interaction Center where students play house 
(simulate a home environment with peers) 
 
IntrapersonalAn Experience Center where students think, write, 
draw, and act out their personal experiences with the homes theyve 
lived in or with an image of their own dream house 
 
NaturalistA Landscape Architecture Center where students can 
design natural features to complement the house (e.g., lawn, bonsai 
garden, fountain, plants, aquarium, etc.) 
Temporary Open-Ended Activity Centers 

Quadrant 2 of Figure 7.1 represents activity centers for open-ended 
exploration that can be set up and taken down quickly by a classroom 
teacher. This type of center can be as simple as eight tables scattered 
around the classroom, each clearly labeled with an intelligence and holding 
intelligence-specific materials that invite students into open-ended activities. 
Games lend themselves particularly well to temporary open-ended 
activity centers. Here are some examples: 

 
LinguisticScrabble 
 
Logical-mathematicalMonopoly 
 
SpatialPictionary 
 
Bodily-kinestheticTwister 
 
MusicalEncore 
 
InterpersonalFamily Feud 
 
IntrapersonalThe Ungame 
 
NaturalistFranks Zoo 
Temporary open-ended activity centers are especially useful for introducing 
students to the idea of multiple intelligences and for giving them 
quick experiences that illustrate the intelligences. 

Permanent Topic-Specific (Shifting) Activity Centers 

Finally, Quadrant 4 of Figure 7.1 represents activity centers that are 
essentially a combination of Quadrant 1 (ongoing and permanent) and Quadrant 
3 (topic-specific and temporary) activity centers. Permanent topic-
specific activity centers are most appropriate for teachers working with 
year-long themes along the lines of Susan Kovaliks (1993, 2001) Highly 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

Effective Teaching (HET) model (formerly known as Integrated Thematic 
Instruction [ITI]). Each center exists year-round and has a number of materials 
and resources that never change (e.g., art supplies in the Spatial Center, 
hands-on materials in the Bodily-Kinesthetic Center). Within each center, 
however, are revolving explorations that change with every monthly component 
or weekly topic of the year-long theme. So, for example, if the yearlong 
theme is Change (more appealingly titled Does Everything Change?), 
a monthlong component might deal with the seasons, and weekly topics 
might focus on individual seasons. The activity centers, then, might focus on 
winter for one week and then shift to spring the next week and to summer 
and fall in subsequent weeks. Every center might have activity cards posted 
that tell students what kinds of things they can work on either alone or 
cooperatively. For example, the activity cards for the topic of summer 
might read as follows: 

 
LinguisticWrite a poem about what you plan to do during the summer. 
If this is a cooperative group activity, first choose a scribe to 
write down the poem. Then each person contributes a line to the poem. 
Finally, choose someone to read the poem to the class. 
 
Logical-mathematicalFirst find out how many days there are in your 
summer vacation. Then figure how out many minutes are in that number 
of days. Finally, calculate the number of seconds in your summer 
vacation. If this is a group activity, collaborate with the other members 
of your group on your answers. 
 
SpatialMake a drawing of some of the things you plan to do during 
the summer. If this is a group activity, do a group drawing on a long 
sheet of mural paper. 
 
Bodily-kinestheticCreate your own representation of summer out 
of a piece of clay. If this is a group activity, cooperate with the other 
members of your group to create a clay sculpture or quickly improvise 
a short play that includes the groups favorite summer activities. 
 
MusicalMake up a rap or song about summer. If this is a group activity, 
collaborate on a group song to sing to the class, or brainstorm all 
the songs you can think of that have to do with summer and be prepared 
to sing some of them to the class. 
 
InterpersonalHave a group discussion about what you think makes 
for a great summer and select a spokesperson to summarize your conclusions 
in front of the class. 

MI Theory and the Classroom Environment 

 
IntrapersonalMake a list or a series of sketches of all the things you 
like about summer. (Note: Students work alone in this center.) 
 
NaturalistClose your eyes and picture all the types of animals and 
plants you are likely to see this summer. Then open your eyes and either 
draw them or create a story (or list) where they are all mentioned. 
Student Choice and Activity Centers 

Should students be able to choose which activity centers they work in? 
The answer to this question may depend upon the type of activity center 
(i.e., which quadrant the center is in) and the purpose of each center. Generally 
speaking, Quadrant 1 and 2 activity centers (those involving open-ended 
experiences) are best structured as choice activities. In other words, you 
can make them available to students during break times, recess, or special 
choice times after students have completed their other schoolwork. When 
used in this way, activity centers provide excellent assessment information 
about students proclivities in the eight intelligences. Students usually 
gravitate toward activity centers based on intelligences in which they feel 
most competent. For example, students who repeatedly go to the Picture 
Smart area and engage in drawing activities are sending a strong message 
to the teacher about the importance of spatial intelligence in their lives. 

Quadrant 3 and Quadrant 4 activity centers emphasize directed study. 
Consequently, when using these types of centers, you may want to let students 
choose the activity center they would like to start with but then have 
them rotate center by center in a clockwise manner until everyone has had 
experience in all eight centers. Using this rotation system from time to time 
with Quadrant 1 and 2 activity centers as well will ensure that students have 
experiences across the wide spectrum of intelligences. 

Activity centers provide students with the opportunity to engage in 
active learning. They serve as oases in the desert for many students who 
are thirsting for something other than boring worksheets and individual 
work at their desks. MI theory allows you to structure activity centers in 
ways that activate a wide range of learning potentials in students. Though 
the descriptions above have been limited to centers based on individual 
intelligences, there is no reason that centers cant be structured to combine 
intelligences in different ways. In this sense, virtually any activity center that 
goes beyond simple reading, writing, or calculation activities qualifies as an 
MI center. A Mechanics Corner combining logical-mathematical, spatial, 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

and bodily-kinesthetic intelligences and a Composers Cabaret combining 
linguistic and musical intelligences are just two examples of MI centers that 
might combine intelligences. 

For Further Study 


1. Survey your classroom environment using the questions on pages 
100103 as a guide. List the changes you would like to make in the ecology 
of your classroom. Prioritize them, putting those items that youd like to 
change, but cant, on a separate list. Then set about making those changes 
that you can make, one at a time. 
2. Set up MI activity centers in your classroom. First, decide which type 
of activity center youd like to start out with (i.e., Quadrant 1, 2, 3, or 4). 
Then list the materials you need and create a schedule for setting up the 
centers. Enlist the help of parent volunteers, students, or colleagues as 
necessary. 
If you have established permanent centers, assess the project after two 
or three weeks of use. If you have established temporary centers, assess 
their success immediately after students experience them. Use your evaluation 
to guide the design of future centers. 

3. To introduce the idea of activity centers to your class, select a topic 
that has an emotional charge and that everyone has had some experience 
withfor instance, fast food. Put up eight signs at various points around the 
room, each bearing the symbol for an intelligence. Under each sign, tape an 
activity card. Then signal students to move toward the intelligence that they 
feel most comfortable with (make sure theyve been introduced to MI in 
some way before this activity; see Chapter 3 for ideas). Alternatively, randomly 
hand out slips of paper on which have been inscribed symbols for 
each of the eight intelligences (one symbol per slip) and have students go to 
the center that corresponds with their individual slips of paper. Students 
then read the activity for their area and cooperatively begin working on it. 
Set a time to reconvene so the groups can present their findings. Here are 
some suggestions for activities related to the topic of fast food: 

MI Theory and the Classroom Environment 

 
LinguisticCreate a manifesto (statement of basic principles) concerning 
student attitudes about fast food. 
 
Logical-mathematicalUsing the nutritional charts provided by the 
fast-food outlets you see here, develop a fast-food breakfast, lunch, or 
dinner that is as low in fat as possible; then put together a fast-food 
breakfast, lunch, or dinner that is as high in fat as possible. 
 
SpatialCreate a mural that concerns itself with peoples fast-food 
eating habits. 
 
Bodily-kinestheticRehearse a role-play or commercial (with or without 
words) about peoples fast-food eating habits and then present it 
to the class. 
 
MusicalWrite a jingle or a rap about peoples fast-food eating habits 
and then sing it together. 
 
InterpersonalDiscuss among yourselves the fast-food eating habits of 
your small group, and then go out and canvass the rest of the class 
about their fast-food eating habits. Select a scribe to record and report 
the results. 
 
IntrapersonalThink about these questions: If you could be any fast 
food, which would you be? Why? Choose a method for recording your 
thoughts (e.g., drawing, writing, or pantomime). You may work alone 
or as a group. 
 
NaturalistMake a list of all the plants and animals used in creating 
the food at a fast-food restaurant. Discuss the potential impact of their 
consumption upon the worlds ecosystems (e.g., oxygen-producing 
rain forests may be cleared for raising the cattle used for meat in 
hamburgers). 

8 

MI Theory and 
Classroom Management 

Nature endows a child with a sensitiveness to order. It is a kind of inner sense that 
distinguishes the relationships between various objects rather than the objects 
themselves. It thus makes a whole of an environment in which the several parts are 
mutually dependent. When a person is oriented in such an environment, he can 
direct his activity to the attainment of specific goals. Such an environment provides 
the foundation for an integrated life. 

Maria Montessori 

A classroom is a microsociety complete with student citizens, many of 
whom have competing needs and interests. Consequently, rules, routines, 
regulations, and procedureselements of orderare a fundamental part of 
the classroom infrastructure. MI theory, while not providing a classroom 
management scheme per se, offers beleaguered teachers a new perspective 
on the many kinds of management strategies that they have used or might 
use to keep order and ensure a smoothly running learning environment. 

Gaining Students Attention 

Perhaps the best illustration of MI theorys utility in the area of classroom 
management can be seen in the ways in which teachers have sought to gain 

112 


MI Theory and Classroom Management 

their students attention at the beginning of a class or a new learning activity. 
A comedy record some years ago humorously recounted one teachers 
attempts to bring her class to order. Against the loud hum of student noise, 
the teacher loudly said: Class! This not working, she upped the voltage 
somewhat: Class!! And once more, even more loudly: Class!!! Seeing her 
ineffectiveness, she finally screamed: SHUT UP!!!! And the class became 
quiet. But then the talking started again, the noise began to grow, and again 
she started the same sequence: Class! Class!! Class!!! SHUT UP!!!! And once 
again quiet. The teacher repeated this process several times until the ultimate 
futility of her attempts became painfully (and laughably) obvious. 

Teachers can laugh at this situation because many have had the same 
experience. From a multiple intelligence perspective, however, the use of 
mere words to quiet a classa linguistic approachmight be seen as the 
least effective way to gain the classs attention. Often, the teachers linguistic 
requests or commands (as figure) dissolve in the students linguistic utterances 
(as ground). Students do not readily differentiate the teachers 
voice from the other voices surrounding them. As a result, they fail to attend 
to directions. This phenomenon is particularly evident among students who 
have been labeled as having attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), 
but it exists to a certain extent among most students. 

A look at some of the more effective techniques used by teachers to grab 
attention suggests the need to move to other intelligences. So, for example, 
the kindergarten teachers playing a piano chord to ask for silence (musical 
intelligence), the 4th grade teachers flicking the lights on and off to call the 
class to attention (spatial intelligence), and the high school teachers use of 
silence as an injunction to self-responsibility (intrapersonal intelligence) all 
demonstrate an understanding of the need to find a nonlinguistic way of 
gaining students attention. Here are several other strategies for getting students 
attention in the classroom: 

 
LinguisticWrite the words Silence, please! on the blackboard. 
 
MusicalClap a short rhythmic phrase and have students clap it back. 
 
Bodily-kinestheticPut your finger against your lips to suggest silence 
while holding your other arm up. Have students mirror your gestures. 
 
SpatialPut a blown-up photo of an attentive classroom on the board 
(perhaps a photo of the actual students involved). 

Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

 
Logical-mathematicalUse a stopwatch to keep track of the time being 
wasted and write on the blackboard the number of seconds lost at 
30-second intervals. 
 
InterpersonalWhisper in the ear of a student, Its time to startpass it 
on, and then wait while students pass the message around the room. 
 
IntrapersonalStart teaching the lesson and allow students to take 
charge of their own behavior. 
 
NaturalistPlay a recording of a shrill bird whistle, or (even better) 
bring a live animal into the classroom. Generally speaking, whenever 
there is an animal visitor in a classroom, thats where the attention 
will be! 
By looking at these tricks of the trade in terms of the theory of multiple 
intelligences, we discover a fundamental methodology that can be used in 
structuring other types of classroom routines, such as preparing students 
for transitions, initiating activities, giving instructions, and forming small 
groups. Essentially, the underlying mechanism of each of these routines 
involves cueing students in such a way as to link symbols from one or more 
of the eight intelligences to specific commands and behaviors. In other 
words, teachers need to discover ways of cueing students not simply 
through the spoken word but through pictures or graphic symbols (spatial), 
gestures and physical movements (bodily-kinesthetic), musical phrases 
(musical), logical patterns (logical-mathematical), social signals (interpersonal), 
emotions (intrapersonal), and living things (naturalist). 

Preparing for Transitions 

To help prepare students for transitions, you can teach the class specific 
cues and provide a different cue for each type of transition. When focusing 
on musical intelligence, for example, you could explain that you will use different 
selections of music to cue different transitions: 

 
RecessBeethovens Pastoral Symphony (Symphony No. 6) 
 
LunchFood, Glorious Food from Oliver! 
 
DismissalGoin Home movement from Dvorks New World Symphony 
(Symphony No. 9) 

MI Theory and Classroom Management 

If spatial intelligence is your focus, you might use graphic symbols or 
pictures to signal that its time to get ready for an event. You can use photographs 
or images of the students themselves: 

 
RecessPicture of kids playing 
 
LunchKids eating in cafeteria 
 
DismissalStudents getting on the school bus or walking home from 
school 
For bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, you might use specific gestures or 
body movements to signal the coming event. With this type of strategy, you 
begin the gesture and students then make the gesture, indicating that they 
have received the message: 

 
RecessStretching and yawning (signifying time for a break) 
 
LunchRubbing stomach and licking lips 
 
DismissalPutting hand above eyes and peering outside of the classroom 
(signifying looking in a homeward direction) 
For logical-mathematical intelligence, you could display a large digital 
countdown clock that students can see from anywhere in the classroom, 
set it for the time left until the transition, and then let students keep track of 
the time left until the transition occurs. For interpersonal intelligence, you 
could use a telephone-tree model; simply give the cue to one student, who 
then tells two students, who themselves each tell two students, and so forth, 
until all students are personally informed. 

Communicating Class Rules 

You can communicate the school or classroom rules for proper conduct 
through a multiple intelligence approach. Some possibilities include 

 
LinguisticRules are written and posted in the classroom (this is the 
most conventional approach). 
 
Logical-mathematicalRules are numbered and later referred to by 
number (e.g., Youre doing a great job of following rule #4). 
 
SpatialNext to the written rules are graphic symbols of what to do 
and what not do to (e.g., respect for others might be symbolized by 
an image of two people holding hands). 

Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

 
Bodily-kinestheticEach rule has a specific gesture; students show 
they know the rules by going through the different gestures (e.g., 
respect for others might be symbolized by hugging oneself). 
 
MusicalThe rules are set to a song (either written by students or set 
to the melody of an existing song), or each rule is associated with a 
relevant song (e.g., respect for others might be connected to Aretha 
Franklins song Respect) 
 
InterpersonalEach rule is assigned to a small group of students who 
then have responsibility for knowing its ins and outs, interpreting it, 
and even enforcing it. 
 
IntrapersonalStudents are responsible for creating the class rules at 
the beginning of the year and developing their own unique ways of 
communicating them to others. 
 
NaturalistAn animal is assigned to each of the rules (e.g., Respectful 
Rabbit). Students learn the rules by imitating the movements of the 
animals. 
Asking students to help create classroom rules is a common way of gaining 
their support of the rules. Similarly, asking students to help develop their 
own MI strategies or cues for classroom procedures is a useful way to establish 
effective cues. Students may want to provide their own music, create 
their own gestures, draw their own graphic symbols, or come up with their 
own animals to signal the class for different activities, transitions, rules, or 
procedures. 

Forming Groups 

Another application of MI theory to classroom management is in the forming 
of small groups. Although groups are often formed on the basis of arbitrary 
commands (you, you, and you are in a group) or intrinsic factors (e.g., 
interest/ability groups), educators have increasingly seen the value of heterogeneous 
groups working cooperatively. MI theory provides a wide range 
of techniques for creating heterogeneous groups based on incidental features 
related to each intelligence. Some of the following ideas have been 
adapted from the book Playfair: Everybodys Guide to Noncompetitive Play by 
Joel Goodman and Matt Weinstein (1980): 


MI Theory and Classroom Management 

 
LinguisticThink of a vowel sound in your first name. Now make that 
vowel sound out loud. Go around the room and find three or four 
people who are making the same vowel sound. 
 
Logical-mathematicalWhen I give the signal, I want you to raise 
between one and five fingers. Go! Now keep those fingers raised and 
find three or four people whose raised fingers combined with yours 
total an odd number. 
 
SpatialFind three or four people who are wearing the same color 
clothes as you are wearing. 
 
Bodily-kinestheticStart hopping on one foot. . . . Now find three or 
four people who are hopping on the same foot. 
 
MusicalWhat are some songs that everybody knows? The teacher 
writes on the board four or five of them (e.g., Row, Row, Row Your 
Boat, Happy Birthday to You, etc.). Okay, Id like you to file past me 
while I whisper in your ear one of these songs. Remember which one 
it is, and when I give the signal, Id like you to sing your song and find 
all the others in the class who are singing the same song. . . . Go! 
 
NaturalistVisualize a sheep, a pig, and a cow in a pasture. Suddenly, 
there is a loud noise and two of them run off. There is only one animal 
left. Start making the sound of that animal out loud, and then find three 
or four people who are making the same animal sound! 
You need not address all intelligences when developing a classroom 
management scheme. But by reaching beyond the traditional linguistic 
approach and using some of the other intelligences (two or three at a minimum), 
you will be providing students with more opportunities for internalizing 
classroom routines. 

Managing Individual Behaviors 

Regardless of how effectively you communicate class rules, routines, and 
procedures, there will always be students whobecause of biological, emotional, 
or cognitive differences or difficultiesfail to abide by them. These 
few students may well take up much of your classroom time as you remind 
them (through several intelligences!) to sit down, stop throwing things, quit 
hitting, and start behaving. Although MI theory has no magical answer to 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

their problems, it can provide a context for looking at a range of discipline 
systems that have proved effective with difficult behaviors. Naturally, MI 
theory suggests that no one discipline approach is best for all kids. In fact, the 
theory suggests that teachers may need to match different discipline 
approaches to different kinds of learners. What follows is a broad range of 
discipline methods matched to the eight intelligences: 

 
LinguisticTalk with the student; provide books for the student that 
refer to the problem and point to solutions; help the student use selftalk 
strategies for gaining control. 
 
Logical-mathematicalUse Dreikurss (1993) logical-consequences 
approach; have the student quantify and chart the occurrence of negative 
or positive behaviors. 
 
SpatialHave the student draw or visualize appropriate behaviors; 
provide the student with a metaphor to use in working with the difficulty 
(e.g., If people say bad things to you, see the bad things as 
arrows that you can dodge); show the student videos that deal with 
the issue or that model the appropriate behaviors. 
 
Bodily-kinestheticHave the student role-play the inappropriate and 
appropriate behaviors and discuss the differences; teach the student 
to use physical cues to deal with stressful situations (e.g., taking a 
deep breath, tightening and relaxing muscles). 
 
MusicalFind musical selections that deal with the issue the student is 
facing; provide music that helps create the appropriate behavior (e.g., 
calming music for tantrums, stimulating musicMusical Ritalinto 
help children labeled ADHD focus); teach the student to play his 
favorite music in his mind whenever he feels out of control. 
 
InterpersonalProvide peer group counseling; buddy up the student 
with a role model; have the student teach or look after a younger child; 
give the student other social outlets for her energies (e.g., leading a 
group). 
 
IntrapersonalTeach the student to voluntarily go to a nonpunitive 
time-out area to gain control (see Nelsen, 1999); provide one-to-one 
counseling; develop a behavior contract (that the student has input in 
creating); give the student the opportunity to work on high-interest 
projects; provide self-esteem activities. 

MI Theory and Classroom Management 

 
NaturalistTell animal stories that teach about improper and proper 
behavior (e.g., The Boy Who Cried Wolf for a persistent fibber); use 
animal metaphors in working with difficult behavior (e.g., ask an 
aggressive student what sort of animal he feels like and how he can 
learn to tame it); use animal-assisted therapy to help with social, 
emotional, and cognitive functioning. 
Behavioral strategies can be further tailored to the needs of students 
with specific kinds of difficulties. Figure 8.1 suggests what some of these 
interventions might look like. 

8.1 
MI Strategies for Managing Individual Behaviors 
Intelligence Aggressive Student Withdrawn Student Hyperactive Student 
Linguistic Bibliotherapy on theme of 
anger management 
Taking up debate, oratory, 
or storytelling 
Books on theme of 
hyperactivity (e.g., The 
Boy Who Burned Too 
Brightly) 
Logical-
Mathematical 
Dreikurss logical-
consequences system 
Interactive computer 
network, chess club 
Quantification of time 
on task 
Spatial Visualizing ways of 
managing conflict 
Movies on theme of 
withdrawn child who 
meets a friend 
Video games that help 
develop focus and control 
(neurofeedback) 
Bodily-
Kinesthetic 
Role-play aggressive 
behavior and try out 
alternatives 
Pairing with trusted 
person for walks, sports, 
games 
Progressive relaxation, 
yoga, hands-on learning, 
strenuous exercise 
Musical Songs promoting social 
skills 
Discography encouraging 
connection with others 
Stimulating music 
(Musical Ritalin) 
Interpersonal Taking group class in 
martial arts 
Group counseling Leadership role in 
cooperative learning group 
Intrapersonal Time out, contracting One-to-one counseling/ 
psychotherapy 
Focusing exercises 
Naturalist Identifying with an animal 
that can then learn how to 
tame itself 
Introspective book about 
nature involving friendship 
(e.g., The Secret Garden) 
Time in nature 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

Taking a Broader Perspective 

The above strategies, of course, are no substitute for a comprehensive professional 
team approach to a students emotional problems or behavioral 
difficulties. MI theory is valuable, however, because it provides teachers 
with the means to sort through a broad range of behavioral strategies and 
discipline systems and offers guidelines for selecting a limited number of 
interventions to try out based upon the students individual differences. 

Sometimes the best strategy for a student may be one matched to a 
poorly developed intelligence. For example, if a student has behavior problems 
because of an underdeveloped interpersonal intelligence, then he may 
benefit most from activities that seek to develop his social skills. In other 
cases, however, the best strategies will be in a students areas of strength. For 
example, you probably would not want to assign reading to a student who 
has problems with both reading and acting out his frustrations. This strategy 
might only aggravate the situation. On the other hand, helping a student 
master a reading problem may be an important ingredient in improving his 
classroom behavior. For a student who acquires knowledge easily through 
the printed word, providing behavioral strategies geared to this strength 
would, generally speaking, be among the most appropriate choices. 

Ultimately, MI theory used in conjunction with classroom management 
goes far beyond the provision of specific behavioral strategies and techniques. 
MI theory can greatly affect students behavior in the classroom simply 
by creating an environment where individual needs are recognized and 
attended to throughout the school day. Students are less likely to be confused, 
frustrated, or stressed out in such an environment. As a result, there 
is likely far less need for behavioral tricks or elaborate discipline systems, 
which often are initiated only when the learning environment has broken 
down. As Leslie Hart (1981) points out, Classroom management, discipline, 
teacher burnout, student failuresthese are all problems inherent in the 
teacher-does-everything approach. Permit and encourage students to use 
their brains actively to learn, and the results can be astonishing (p. 40). 


MI Theory and Classroom Management 

For Further Study 


1. Select a classroom routine that students are currently having trouble 
adapting to (e.g., moving from one activity to another, learning class rules) 
and experiment with different intelligence-specific cues for helping them 
master it. 
2. Try out nonverbal ways of getting students attention through musical, 
spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, logical-mathematical, naturalist, 
or intrapersonal intelligences. Develop alternative cues from those 
mentioned in this chapter. 
3. Choose a student who has been particularly disruptive in class or 
whose behavior in some other way has proved difficult to handle. Determine 
his or her most developed intelligences (using identification strategies from 
Chapter 3). Then select behavioral strategies that match the students most 
developed intelligences. Consider also strategies in less developed intelligences 
that would help develop skills in areas of need. Evaluate the results. 
4. Review the behavioral systems currently used in your classroom or 
school. Identify which specific intelligences are addressed and how they 
match or do not match the learning strengths of your students. 
5. Identify classroom management issues not specifically discussed in 
this chapter and relate MI theory to them in some tangible way. What are 
the advantages of using MI theory in handling classroom management problems? 
What are its limitations? 

9 

The MI School 


The school we envision commits itself to fostering students deep understanding in 
several core disciplines. It encourages students use of that knowledge to solve the 
problems and complete the tasks that they may confront in the wider community. At 
the same time, the school seeks to encourage the unique blend of intelligences in 
each of its students, assessing their development regularly in intelligence-fair ways. 

Howard Gardner 

The implications of MI theory extend far beyond classroom instruction. At 
heart, the theory of multiple intelligences calls for nothing short of a fundamental 
change in the way schools are structured. It delivers to educators 
everywhere the strong message that students who show up for school at the 
beginning of each day have the right to be provided with experiences that 
activate and develop all of their intelligences. During the typical school day, 
every student should be exposed to courses, projects, or programs that 
focus on developing each of their intelligences, not just the standard verbal 
and logical abilities that for decades have been exalted above every form of 
human potential. 

122 


The MI School 

MI and the Traditional School 

In most U.S. schools today, programs that concentrate on the neglected 
intelligences (musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, naturalist, interpersonal, 
intrapersonal) tend to be considered frill subjects or at least subjects 
peripheral to the core academic courses. When a school district has a 
budget crisis, fiscal managers usually dont turn first to the reading and 
math programs for ways to save money. They begin by eliminating the 
music program, the art program, and the physical education program (see 
Viadero, 1991). Even when these programs are still operating, they often 
show the subtle influence of verbal and logical demands. John Goodlad 
(2004), commenting on observations of schools from his monumental A 
Study of Schooling, writes: I am disappointed with the degree to which arts 
classes appear to be dominated by the ambience of English, mathematics, 
and other academic subjects. . . . They did not convey the picture of individual 
expression and artistic creativity toward which one is led by the 
rhetoric of forward-looking practice in the field (pp. 219220). Goodlad 
found the physical education classes similarly flawed: Anything that might 
be called a program was virtually nonexistent. Physical education appeared 
to be a teacher-monitored recess . . .  (p. 222). 

Administrators and others who help structure programs in schools can 
use MI theory as a framework for making sure that each student has the 
opportunity every day to experience direct interaction with each of the eight 
intelligences in the specific domains where they figure most prominently 
(e.g., art, music, physical education). Figure 9.1 suggests some of the programmatic 
features that span the eight intelligences in school, including 
traditional courses, supplementary programs, and extracurricular offerings. 

The Components of an MI School 

Simply providing students with access to a diverse range of school subjects, 
however, does not necessarily constitute a multiple intelligence school. In 
his book Multiple Intelligences: New Horizons in Theory and Practice, Gardner 
(2006a) sets up one vision of the ideal multiple intelligence school. In particular, 
Gardner draws upon two nonschool models in suggesting how MI 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

9.1 
MI in Traditional School Programs 
Intelligence Subjects Supplementary 
Program 
Extracurricular 
Activities 
Linguistic Reading 
Language arts 
Literature 
English 
History 
Most foreign languages 
Speech 
Creative writing lab 
Communication skills 
Debate 
School newspaper 
Yearbook 
Language clubs 
Honor society 
Logical-
Mathematical 
Sciences 
Mathematics 
Economics 
Thinking skills 
Computer programming 
Science clubs 
Honor society 
Spatial Shop 
Drafting 
Art 
Visual-thinking lab 
Architecture club 
Animation 
Computer-assisted design 
Photography club 
Audiovisual staff 
Chess club 
Bodily-
Kinesthetic 
Physical education Theater games 
Martial arts 
Walking program 
Sports teams 
Drama 
Cheerleading 
Musical Music Orff Schulwerk programs 
Kodaly method 
Suzuki training 
Band 
Orchestra 
Chorus 
Interpersonal Social Sciences Social skills training 
Prevention programs 
(e.g., drugs) 
Diversity training 
Counseling 
Glee club 
Student government 
Intrapersonal Psychology Self-esteem development 
programs 
Counseling 
Special-interest clubs 
Naturalist Biology 
Zoology 
Botany 
Ecology 
Ecological awareness in 
other school subjects 
Gardening program 
Camping trips 
Future Farmers of America 
Future Homemakers of 
America 
Naturalist clubs (e.g., 
gardening, bird watching) 


The MI School 

schools might be structured. First, he sees MI schools as based in part on 
the example of contemporary childrens museums. According to Gardner, 
these environments provide a setting for learning that is hands-on, interdisciplinary, 
based on real-life contexts, and set in an informal atmosphere that 
promotes free inquiry into novel materials and situations. Second, he looks 
to the age-old model of apprenticeships, whereby masters of a trade oversee 
ongoing projects undertaken by their youthful protgs. 

Gardner suggests that in an MI school, students might spend their mornings 
working on traditional subjects in nontraditional ways. In particular, 
Gardner recommends the use of project-centered instruction. Students look 
in depth at a particular area of inquiry (a historical conflict, a scientific principle, 
a literary genre) and develop a project (photo essay, experiment, journal) 
that reflects an ongoing process of coming to grips with the many 
dimensions of the topic. Students then go into the community during the 
second part of the day and further extend their understanding of the topics 
they are studying in school. Younger students, according to Gardner, might 
regularly go to childrens museums, art or science museums, or other places 
where hands-on exploratory learning and play are encouraged and where 
interaction with docents and other expert guides takes place. Older students 
(past 3rd grade) could choose apprenticeships based upon an assessment of 
their intellectual proclivities, interests, and available resources. They could 
then spend their afternoons studying with experts in the community in specific 
arts, skills, crafts, physical activities, or other real-life endeavors. 

Fundamental to Gardners vision of an MI school are the activities of 
three key members of the school staff, representing functions that are currently 
absent from most schools. In Gardners model, every MI school would 
have staff in the following roles: 

Assessment specialist: This staff member is responsible for developing 
an ongoing picture or record of each childs strengths, limitations, and 
interests in all eight intelligences. Using intelligence-fair assessments, the 
assessment specialist documents each childs school experience in many 
ways (through observation, informal assessments, and multimedia documentation) 
and provides parents, teachers, administrators, and students 
themselves with an overview of their proclivities in each of the eight intelligences. 
(See Chapter 10 for an MI perspective on testing and assessment.) 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

Studentcurriculum broker: This person serves as a bridge between the 
students gifts and abilities in the eight intelligences and the available 
resources in the school. The studentcurriculum broker matches students 
to specific courses and electives and provides teachers with information 
about how particular subjects might best be presented to a student (e.g., 
through video, hands-on experiences, books, music). This staff member is 
responsible for maximizing the students learning potentials, given the particular 
kinds of materials, methods, and human resources available in the 
school. 

Schoolcommunity broker: This staff person is the link between the 
students intellectual proclivities and the resources available in the wider 
community. A schoolcommunity broker should possess a wealth of information 
about the kinds of apprenticeships, organizations, mentorships, 
tutorials, community courses, and other learning experiences available in 
the surrounding geographic area. This person then attempts to match a 
students interests, skills, and abilities to appropriate experiences beyond 
the school walls (e.g., finding an expert cellist to guide a students burgeoning 
interest in playing the cello). 

Gardner suggests that the creation of such an MI school is far from utopian. 
Instead, it depends upon the confluence of several factors, including 
assessment practices that engage students in the actual materials and symbols 
of each intelligence, curriculum development that reflects real-life skills 
and experiences, teacher training programs that reflect sound educational 
principles and that have master teachers working with students committed 
to the field, and finally, a high level of community involvement from parents, 
business leaders, museums, and other learning institutions. 

A Model MI School: The Key Learning Community 

Efforts toward building an MI school have already been under way for several 
years. One school in particular has been singled out by the media and 
other educators for recognition: the Key Learning Community in Indianapolis, 
Indiana. In 1984, a group of eight Indianapolis public school teachers 
contacted Howard Gardner for assistance in helping start a new school in 
the district. Out of their collaboration (as well as the infusion of new educational 
ideas from the likes of Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, Elliot Eisner, Ernest 
Boyer, James MacDonald, and John Goodlad), the Key School was officially 


The MI School 

born in September 1987 (Fiske, 1988; Olson, 1988). Over the past 20 years, 
the school has expanded from an elementary school to a K12 institution. 

The Key Learning Community combines several different features of 
multiple intelligence education to create a total learning experience, including 
the following: 

Regular instruction in all eight intelligences: Students at the Key Learning 
Community middle school take classes in traditional subjects (e.g., 
math, science, language arts, history, geography, German) but also receive 
an equal amount of instruction in physical education, art, and music. Compared 
with schools nationally, students at Key receive double the exposure 
to art, music, and physical education than does the average student in the 
United States. Each child learns to play a musical instrument, starting with 
the violin in kindergarten. 

Schoolwide themes: Each year, the school staff selects two themes, one 
each semester, to help focus curricular activity. Themes used in past years 
include Connections, Animal Patterns, Changes in Time and Space, Lets 
Make a DifferenceEnvironmental Focus, Heritage, and RenaissanceThen 
and Now. During the development of a theme, whole areas of the school may 
reflect the learning that is going on. For example, during the environmental 
theme, part of the school was turned into a simulated tropical rain forest. 
Students select and develop projects for each theme, which they then present 
to their teachers and peers during special sessions that are videotaped. 

Pods: These are special learning groups that students individually 
select based upon their interests. Pods are formed around specific disciplines 
(e.g., gardening, architecture, acting) or cognitive pursuits (e.g., mathematical 
thinking, problem solving, the mind and movement). Students 
work with a teacher possessing special competence in the selected area in 
an apprenticeship-like context that emphasizes mastering real-world skills 
and knowledge. In the architecture pod, for example, students adopted 
nine houses in the surrounding area and studied the designs of the houses 
through walking tours and other activities. 

The flow room: Students visit the flow room in the school several 
times each week to engage in activities designed to activate their intelligences 
in open-ended and playful ways (Cohen, 1991). Named after Mihaly 
Csikszentmihalyis (1990) concept of flow (referring to a positive state of 
intense absorption in an activity), the flow room is stocked with scores 
of board games, puzzles, computer software programs, and other learning 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

materials. Students can choose to participate in any activity available in the 
room (either alone or with others). A teacher helps facilitate their experience 
and also observes how individual students interact with the materials 
(each of which is keyed to a specific intelligence; for instance, the game 
Othello is linked to spatial intelligence, whereas Twister is seen primarily as 
a bodily-kinesthetic activity). 

Heterogeneous mixed-aged grouping: Students who attend the Key 
Learning Community are chosen randomly by a lottery system. Although 
some students had previously been labeled learning disabled and gifted 
and placed in special education programs, no such programs are currently 
in place at the Key Learning Community. Students in any one class have a 
wide range of ability levels, a factor that is seen to enrich the program 
through diversity. (See Chapter 11 for a discussion of MI theory and special 
education.) 

Although the Key Learning Community is only one of a number of school-
wide and districtwide efforts to implement the theory of multiple intelligences, 
it clearly provides evidence that systemwide restructuring based on 
MI theory can become realityand that successful restructuring can be a 
grassroots effort. The Key Learning Community was not mandated at an 
administrative level; it is a product of the energy and commitment of eight 
public school teachers who had a dream about what education could be for 
their students. 

MI Schools of the Future 

The Key Learning Community experience should by no means be taken as 
the only way, or even the preferred way, to develop a multiple intelligence 
school (for another example, see Hoerr, 2000). There may be as many possible 
types of MI schools as there are groups of educators, parents, administrators, 
and community leaders committed to putting MI principles into 
action. Regardless of how they are structured, MI schools of the future will 
undoubtedly continue expanding the possibilities for unleashing childrens 
potentials in all intelligences. Perhaps MI schools of the future will look less 
like schools and more like the real world, with traditional school buildings 
serving as temporary conduits through which students move on their way 
to meaningful experiences in the community. Possibly, programs will arise 


The MI School 

that specialize in the development of one or more of the intelligences 
although we must be quick to guard against a brave new world of multiple 
intelligences that could seek to identify individual students strongest intelligences 
early in life so as to exploit them and channel them prematurely 
into a small niche that would serve a narrowly segmented society. 

Ultimately, what will enrich the development of MI theory is its implementation 
in interdisciplinary ways that reflect the ever-changing demands 
of an increasingly complex society. As society changesand perhaps as we 
discover new intelligences to help us cope with these changesMI schools 
of the future may reflect features that are right now beyond our wildest 
dreams. 

For Further Study 


1. Evaluate your school in terms of multiple intelligence theory. During 
the course of a school day, does each student have the opportunity to 
develop each of the eight intelligences for its own sake? Specify programs, 
courses, activities, and experiences that develop the intelligences. How 
could the schools programs be modified to better incorporate the broad 
spectrum of intelligences? 
2. Assuming you had an unlimited amount of money and resources available 
to you, develop your version of the ideal MI school. What will the 
physical plant look like? Draw a floor plan of the school to illustrate. What 
kinds of courses will be offered? What will the function of teachers be? What 
kinds of experiences will students have? Develop a scenario of a typical student 
going through a typical day at such a school. 
3. Contact schools that are now using multiple intelligence theory as an 
overall framework or philosophy and compare and contrast their different 
ways of applying the model (use an online search engine and put in the 
search terms schools and multiple intelligences). Which aspects of each 
program are applicable to your own school or classroom? Which components 
are not? 
4. Discuss some of the problems that schools might have in implementing 
MI theory as part of a broader reform movement. How can MI theory 
best fit into a schools restructuring process? What elements can be included 
in staff development to improve the chances for this models success? 

10 

MI Theory and Assessment 


I believe that we should get away altogether from tests and correlations among tests, 
and look instead at more naturalistic sources of information about how peoples 
around the world develop skills important to their way of life. 

Howard Gardner 

The kinds of changes in instructional practice described in the previous nine 
chapters require an equivalent adjustment in the manner of assessment 
used to evaluate learning progress. It would certainly be the height of hypocrisy 
to ask students to participate in a wide range of multispectrum experiences 
in all eight intelligences and then require them to show what theyve 
learned through standardized tests that focus narrowly on linguistic or 
logical-mathematical intelligences. Educators would clearly be sending a 
double message to students and to the wider community: Learning in eight 
ways is fun, but when it comes to our bottom lineevaluating students 
learning progressweve got to get serious again and test the way weve 
always tested. Thus, MI theory proposes a fundamental restructuring of 
the way in which educators assess their students learning progress. It suggests 
a system that relies far less on formal standardized or norm-referenced 

130 


MI Theory and Assessment 

tests and much more on authentic measures that are criterion-referenced, 
benchmarked, or ipsative (i.e., that compare a student to his or her own past 
performances). 

The multiple intelligence philosophy of assessment is closely in line with 
the perspective of a growing number of leading educators who have argued 
that authentic measures of assessment probe students understanding of 
material far more thoroughly than multiple-choice or fill-in-the-blank tests 
(see Gardner 1993b, 2006a; Herman, Aschbacher, & Winters, 1992; Popham, 
2008; and Wolf, LeMahieu, & Eresh, 1992). In particular, authentic measures 
allow students to show what theyve learned in contextin other words, in 
a setting that closely matches the environment in which they would be 
expected to show that learning in real life. Standardized measures, on the 
other hand, almost always assess students in artificial settings far removed 
from the real world. Figure 10.1 lists a number of other ways in which 
authentic measures prove superior to standardized testing in promoting 
educational quality. 

Varieties of Assessment Experience 

Authentic assessment covers a wide range of instruments, measures, and 
methods. The most important prerequisite to authentic assessment is observation. 
Howard Gardner (1993a, 1993b, 2006a) has pointed out that we can 
best assess students multiple intelligences by observing students manipulating 
the symbol systems of each intelligence. For instance, you might 
notice how students play a logical board game, how they interact with a 
machine, how they dance, or how they cope with a dispute in a cooperative 
learning group. Observing students solving problems or fashioning products 
in real-life contexts provides the best picture of student competencies 
in the range of subjects taught in school. 

The next most important component in implementing authentic assessment 
is the documentation of student products and problem-solving 
pro c esses. You can document student performance in a variety of ways, 
including the following: 

Anecdotal records: Keep a journal with a section for each child, and 
record important academic and nonacademic accomplishments, interactions 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

10.1 
Standardized Testing Versus Authentic Assessment 
Standardized Testing 
 Reduces childrens rich and complex lives to a collection of scores, percentiles, or grades 
 Creates stresses that negatively affect a childs performance 
 Creates a mythical standard or norm that requires that a certain percentage of children fail 
 Pressures teachers to narrow their curriculum to only what is tested on an exam 
 Emphasizes one-shot exams that assess knowledge residing in a single mind at a single moment in time 
 Tends to place the focus of interpretation on errors, mistakes, low scores, and other things that children 
cant do 
 Focuses too much importance on single sets of data (i.e., test scores) in making educational decisions 
 Treats all students in a uniform way 
 Discriminates against some students because of cultural background and learning style 
 Judges the child without providing suggestions for improvement 
 Regards testing and instruction as separate activities 
Authentic Assessment 
 Gives the teacher a felt sense of the childs unique experience as a learner 
 Provides interesting, active, lively, and exciting experiences 
 Establishes an environment where every child has the opportunity to succeed 
 Allows teachers to develop meaningful curricula and assess within the context of that program 
 Assesses on an ongoing basis in a way that provides a more accurate picture of a students 
achievement 
 Puts the emphasis on a students strengths; tells what they can do and what theyre trying to do 
 Provides multiple sources of evaluation that give a more accurate view of a students progress 
 Treats each student as a unique human being 
 Provides a culture-fair assessment of a students performance; gives everyone an equal chance to 
succeed 
 Provides information that is useful to the learning process 
 Regards assessment and teaching as two sides of the same coin 

with peers and learning materials, and other relevant information about each 
child. 

Work samples: Have a file for each child that contains samples of the 
students work in language arts, math, art, or other areas for which you are 
responsible. The samples can be photocopies if the child wishes to keep the 
original. 

Audio files: Record reading samples (have the student read into a 
recorder and also tell back the story at the end) and a students jokes, stories, 
riddles, memories, opinions, and other samples of oral language; also 
use audio files to document a childs musical ability (singing, rapping, or 
playing an instrument). 


MI Theory and Assessment 

Video: Use video to record a childs abilities in areas that are hard to 
document in any other way (e.g., acting out a role in a school play, catching 
a pass in a football game, demonstrating how she fixed a machine, introducing 
an ecology project) and to record students presenting projects theyve 
completed. 

Photography: Have a digital camera on hand to snap pictures of things 
kids have made that might not be preserved (e.g., three-dimensional constructions, 
inventions, science and art projects). 

Student journals: Students can keep an ongoing journal of their experiences 
in school, including writing entries, diagrams, doodles, and drawings. 

Student-kept charts: Students can keep their own records of academic 
progress on charts and graphs (e.g., number of books read, progress toward 
an educational objective). 

Sociograms: Keep a visual record of student interactions in class, using 
symbols to indicate affiliations, negative interactions, and neutral contacts 
between class members. 

Informal assessments: Create nonstandardized tests to elicit information 
about a childs ability in a specific area. Focus on building a qualitative 
picture of the students understanding of the material rather than devising 
a method to expose the students ignorance in a subject. 

Informal use of standardized tests: Give standardized tests to individual 
students, but dont follow the strict administration guidelines. Relax time limits, 
read instructions to the student, ask the student to clarify responses, and 
provide opportunities to demonstrate answers in pictures, three-dimensional 
constructions, music, or other ways. Find out what the student really knows; 
probe errors to find out how the student is thinking. Use the test as a stimulus 
to engage the student in a dialogue about the material. 

Student interviews: Periodically meet with students to discuss their 
school progress, their broader interests and goals, and other relevant issues. 
Keep a record of each meeting in a students file. 

Criterion-referenced assessments: Use measures that evaluate students 
not on the basis of a norm but with respect to a given set of skillsthat is, 
use assessments that tell in concrete terms what the student can and cannot 
do (e.g., add two-digit numbers with regrouping, write a three-page story on 
a subject that interests the student). 

Checklists: Develop an informal criterion-referenced assessment system 
by simply keeping a checklist of important skills or content areas used in 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

your classroom and then checking off competencies when students have 
achieved them (as well as indicating progress toward each goal). 

Classroom maps: Draw up a classroom map (a birds-eye view of the 
classroom with all desks, tables, and activity areas indicated) and make copies 
of it. Each day indicate patterns of movement, activity, and interaction in 
different parts of the room, writing on the map the names of the students 
involved. 

Calendar records: Have students keep records of their activities during 
the day by recording them on a monthly calendar. You can collect the calendars 
at the end of every month. 

MI Assessment Projects 

Several assessment projects have been initiated nationwide that are congruent 
with the fundamental philosophy of MI theory, many of them under the 
direction of Howard Gardner and his colleagues at Harvard Universitys 
Project Zero. These include projects at the preschool, elementary, middle 
school, and high school levels (see Gardner 1993b, 2006a). 

Project Spectrum: This was a preschool program piloted at the Eliot 
Pearson Childrens School at Tufts University in Medford, Massachusetts. 
The program used several assessment instruments that are themselves rich 
and engaging activities forming an integral part of the Spectrum curriculum. 
They included creative movement experiences (bodily-kinesthetic/musical); 
a dinosaur board game involving rolling dice, counting moves, and calculating 
strategies (logical-mathematical); and a storyboard activity that required 
students to create a miniature three-dimensional world and then tell a story 
about it (spatial/linguistic). The program also made use of art portfolios and 
teachers observations of children engaged in activities in the different centers 
(e.g., the storytelling area, the building center, the naturalists corner). 
In addition to looking for proclivities in the eight intelligences, teachers 
assessed each students characteristic working styles, looking, for example, 
at whether students were confident or tentative, playful or serious, or 
reflective or impulsive in their way of approaching different learning settings. 
(For more information, see Gardner, Feldman, & Krechevsky, 1998a, 
1998b, 1998c). 


MI Theory and Assessment 

Key Learning Community: This is a K12 program that is part of the 
Indianapolis Public Schools in Indiana. In this program, educators use video 
extensively in their assessment of learning progress. Students are videotaped 
at two points during the year as they are presenting their learning 
projects. These video portfolios accompany a student through the grades, 
providing valuable assessment information to parents, teachers, administrators, 
and the students themselves. (See Chapter 9 for more information on 
the Key Learning Community.) 

Practical Intelligence for School Units: This program was a middle 
school infusion curriculum that sought to help students develop metacognitive 
skills and understandings in school-related activities; units included 
Choosing a Project, Finding the Right Mathematical Tools, Note Taking, 
and Why Go to School. Students were evaluated on these units 
through contextually rich performance-based assessments. For the unit 
called Choosing a Project, the assessment tasks included critiquing three 
proposal plans and providing suggestions for improving the least promising 
one. For the unit called Mathematical Tools, the assessment tasks 
included solving a problem with limited resources and generating other 
options for developing solutions (see Williams et al., 1996). 

Arts PROPEL: This was a five-year high school arts project piloted in the 
Pittsburgh Public Schools in Pennsylvania. The focus was on two elements: 

(1) domain projects, which were a series of exercises, activities, and productions 
in the visual arts, music, and creative writing designed to develop 
student sensitivity to compositional features; and (2) processfolios, which 
were ongoing collections of students artistic productions, such as drawings, 
paintings, musical compositions, and creative writing, from initial idea 
through rough drafts to final product. Evaluation procedures included self-
assessments (requiring student reflection) and teacher assessments that 
probed students technical and imaginative skills and their ability to benefit 
from self-reflection and critique from others (see Scripp, 1990). 
Assessment in Eight Ways 

MI theory provides its greatest contribution to assessment in suggesting 
multiple ways to evaluate students. The biggest shortcoming of standardized 
tests is that they require students to show in a narrowly defined way 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

what theyve learned during the year. Standardized tests usually demand 
that students be seated at a desk, that they complete the test within a specific 
amount of time, and that they speak to no one during the test. The tests 
themselves usually contain largely linguistic questions or test items that 
students must answer by filling in bubbles on computer-coded forms. MI 
theory, however, supports the belief that students should be able to show 
competence in a specific skill, subject, content area, or domain in any one 
of a variety of ways. And just as the theory of multiple intelligences suggests 
that any instructional objective can be taught in at least eight different 
ways, so too does it imply that any subject can be assessed in at least eight 
different ways. 

If, for example, the objective is for students to demonstrate an understanding 
of the character of Huck Finn in the Mark Twain novel Huckleberry 
Finn, a standardized test might require students to complete the following 
task on a testing form: 

Choose the word that best describes Huck Finn in the novel: 

a.) Sensitive 
b.) Jealous 
c.) Erudite 
d.) Fidgety 


Such an item demands that students know the meanings of each of the four 
words and that every students interpretation of Huck Finn coincides with 
that of the test maker. For instance, although fidgety might be the answer 
the testers are looking for, sensitive might actually be closer to the truth, 
because it touches on Hucks openness to a wide range of social issues. But 
a standardized test provides no opportunity to explore or discuss this interpretation. 
Students who are not particularly word-sensitive may know a 
great deal about Huck Finn, yet not be able to show their knowledge on this 
test item. 

On the other hand, MI theory suggests a variety of ways in which students 
could demonstrate their understanding: 

 
LinguisticDescribe Huck Finn in your own words, either orally or in 
an open-ended written format. 
 
Logical-mathematicalIf Huck Finn were a scientific principle, law, or 
theorem, which one would he be? 

MI Theory and Assessment 

 
SpatialDraw a quick sketch showing something that you think Huck 
Finn would enjoy doing thats not indicated in the novel. 
 
Bodily-kinestheticPantomime how you think Huck Finn would act in 
a classroom. 
 
MusicalIf Huck Finn were a musical phrase, what would he sound 
like or what song would he be? 
 
InterpersonalWho does Huck Finn remind you of in your own life 
(friends, family, other students, TV characters)? 
 
IntrapersonalDescribe in a few words your personal feelings toward 
Huck Finn. 
 
NaturalistIf Huck Finn were an animal, which one would he be? 
By linking Huck Finn to pictures, physical actions, musical phrases, scientific 
formulas, social connections, personal feelings, or animals, students 
have more opportunities to use their multiple intelligences to help articulate 
their understanding. Implied here is the fundamental notion that many students 
who have mastered the material taught in school may not have the 
means to show what theyve learned if the only setting available for demonstrating 
competency is a narrowly focused linguistic testing arena. Figure 

10.2 shows other examples of how students can show competence in specific 
academic subjects. 
Using the eight ways context described above, students might be 
assessed in any number of ways, including 

 
Through exposure to all eight performance tasks in an attempt to discover 
the area(s) in which they were most successful. 
 
By being assigned a performance task based upon the teachers understanding 
of their most developed intelligence. 
 
By choosing the manner in which theyd like to be assessed themselves. 
Figure 10.3 contains a sample form that suggests how students 
might contract to be assessed in a specific subject area. 
Assessment in Context 

MI theory expands the assessment arena considerably to include a wide 
range of possible contexts within which a student can express competence 
in a specific area. It suggests that both the manner of presentation and the 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

10.2 
Examples of the Eight Ways Students Can Show 
Their Knowledge About Specific Topics 
Intelligence Factors Associated 
with the South 
Losing the Civil War 
Development of a 
Character in a Novel 
Principles of 
Molecular Bonding 
Linguistic Give an oral or written 
report 
Do oral interpretation 
from the novel with 
commentary 
Explain concept verbally 
or in writing 
Logical-
Mathematical 
Present statistics on 
dead, wounded, supplies 
Present sequential 
cause-effect chart of 
characters development 
Write down chemical 
formulas and show how 
derived 
Spatial Draw maps of important 
battles 
Develop flow chart or 
series of sketches 
showing rise/fall of 
character 
Draw diagrams that 
show different bonding 
patterns 
Bodily-
Kinesthetic 
Create 3-D maps of 
important battles and act 
them out with miniature 
soldiers 
Pantomime the role from 
beginning of novel to end, 
showing changes 
Build several molecular 
structures with 
multicolored pop-beads 
Musical Assemble Civil War 
songs that point to 
causal factors 
Present development of 
character as a musical 
score 
Orchestrate a dance 
showing different 
bonding patterns (see 
below) 
Interpersonal Design class simulation 
of important battles 
Discuss underlying 
motives and moods 
relating to development 
Demonstrate molecular 
bonding using classmates 
as atoms 
Intrapersonal Develop ones own unique 
way of demonstrating 
competency 
Relate characters 
development to ones 
own life history 
Create scrapbook 
demonstrating 
competency 
Naturalist Examine how the 
geographical features of 
North and South 
contributed to result 
Compare development of 
character to the evolution 
of a species or the 
history of an ecosystem 
Use animal analogies to 
explain dynamics of 
bonding (e.g., animals 
that attract and dont 
attract, symbiotic 
relationships in nature) 


MI Theory and Assessment 

Celebration of Learning Student Sign-Up Sheet 

To show that I know ___________________________________________, I would like to: 

 Write a report 
 Do a photo essay 
 Compile a scrapbook 
 Build a model 
 Put on a live demonstration 
 Create a group project 
 Do a statistical chart 
 Develop an interactive computer presentation 
 Keep a journal 
 Record interviews 
 Design a mural 
 Create a discography 
 Give a talk 
 Develop a simulation 
 Create a series of sketches/diagrams 
 Set up an experiment 
 Engage in a debate or discussion 
 Do a mind-map 
 Produce a videotape segment 
 Create an ecology project 
 Develop a musical 
 Create a rap or song 
 Teach the topic to someone else 
 Choreograph a dance 
 Other: 
Brief description of what I intend to do: 

_______________________________________________ _________________________ 
Signature of Student Date 
_______________________________________________ _________________________ 
Signature of Teacher Date 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

method of response will be important in determining a students competence. 
If a student learns primarily through pictures, yet is exposed only to 
the printed word when learning new material, then she will probably not be 
able to show mastery of the subject. Similarly, if a student is physically oriented 
(bodily-kinesthetic), yet has to demonstrate mastery through a paperand-
pencil test, then he probably will not be able to express what he knows. 
Figure 10.4 indicates some of the many combinations possible between 
method of presentation and method of response in structuring assessment 
contexts. 

Typical testing settings for students in U.S. schools take in only one of 
the 64 contexts shown in Figure 10.4 (the one in the upper left corner: Read 
a book, then write a response). Yet even the contexts listed in Figure 10.4 
are but a fraction of the potential settings that could be structured for 
assessment purposes. For example, Listen to a talking book could be 
substituted for Read a book, and Tell a story might replace Write a 
response to structure several other assessment contexts. There are also 
many opportunities for variety even within each of the combinations shown 
in Figure 10.4. For example, the experience of a student who chooses to go 
on a field trip, then build a model will vary depending on where the field trip 
is taken, what kind of mediating experiences are provided during the trip, 
and how the model-building activity is structured. These factors would 
themselves give rise to a multiplicity of contexts, some of which might be 
favorable to a students demonstration of competency (e.g., a field trip to a 
place the student is interested in or has had prior experience with) and others 
that might be unfavorable (e.g., the use of modeling materials the student 
didnt like or had no familiarity with or their use in a setting with peers 
he didnt get along with). 

Of course, you do not need to develop 64 different assessment contexts 
for everything you need to evaluate. Figure 10.4 suggests, however, the need 
to provide students with assessment experiences that include access to a 
variety of methods of presentation (inputs) and means of expression (outputs). 
The kinds of assessment experiences that MI theory proposes 
particularly those that are project-based and thematically orientedoffer 
students frequent opportunities to be exposed to several of these contexts 
at one time (as the Project Zero programs described earlier illustrate). 
For example, if students are developing a video to show their understanding 


MI Theory and Assessment 

10.464 MI Assessment ContextsActivity/
Assessment 
LinguisticActivity 
Logical-
MathematicalActivity 
SpatialActivity 
MusicalActivity 
Bodily-
KinestheticActivity 
InterpersonalActivity 
IntrapersonalActivity 
NaturalistActivity 
LinguisticAssessment 
Read a book,
then write aresponse. 
Examine astatistical chart,
then write aresponse. 
Watch a movie,
then write aresponse. 
Listen to a pieceof music, thenwrite a response. 
Go on a fi eld 
trip, then write aresponse. 
Play acooperativegame, then writea response. 
Think about apersonalexperience, thenwrite a response. 
Observe 
nature, then 
write aresponse. 
Logical-
MathematicalAssessment 
Read a book,
then develop ahypothesis. 
Examine astatistical chart,
then develop ahypothesis. 
Watch a movie,
then develop ahypothesis. 
Listen to a pieceof music, then 
develop ahypothesis. 
Go on a fi eld 
trip, thendevelop ahypothesis. 
Play acooperativegame, thendevelop ahypothesis. 
Think about apersonalexperience,
then develop ahypothesis. 
Observe 
nature, thendevelop ahypothesis. 
SpatialAssessment 
Read a book,
then draw apicture. 
Examine astatistical chart,
then draw apicture. 
Watch a movie,
then draw apicture. 
Listen to a pieceof music, thendraw a picture. 
Go on a fi eld 
trip, then draw apicture. 
Play acooperativegame, then drawa picture. 
Think about apersonalexperience, thendraw a picture. 
Observe 
nature, then 
draw apicture. 
Bodily-
KinestheticAssessment 
Read a book,
then build amodel. 
Examine astatistical chart,
then build amodel. 
Watch a movie,
then build amodel. 
Listen to a pieceof music, thenbuild a model. 
Go on a fi eld 
trip, then build amodel. 
Play acooperativegame, then builda model. 
Think about apersonalexperience, thenbuild a model. 
Observe 
nature, then 
build amodel. 
MusicalAssessment 
Read a book,
then create asong. 
Examine astatistical chart,
then create asong. 
Watch a movie,
then create asong. 
Listen to a pieceof music,
then create asong. 
Go on a fi eld 
trip, then createa song. 
Play acooperativegame, then createa song. 
Think about apersonalexperience, thencreate a song. 
Observe 
nature, thencreate a song. 

(continued) 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

10.464 MI Assessment Contexts (continued)
Activity/
Assessment 
LinguisticActivity 
Logical-
MathematicalActivity 
SpatialActivity 
MusicalActivity 
Bodily-
KinestheticActivity 
InterpersonalActivity 
IntrapersonalActivity 
NaturalistActivity 
InterpersonalAssessment 
Read a book,
then share witha friend. 
Examine astatistical chart,
then share witha friend. 
Watch a movie,
then share witha friend. 
Listen to a pieceof music, thenshare witha friend. 
Go on a fi eld 
trip, then sharewith a friend. 
Play acooperativegame, then sharewith a friend. 
Think about apersonalexperience,
then share witha friend. 
Observe 
nature, thenshare witha friend. 
IntrapersonalAssessment 
Read a book,
then designyour ownresponse. 
Examine astatistical chart,
then design yourown response. 
Watch a movie,
then designyour ownresponse. 
Listen to a pieceof music, thendesign your ownresponse. 
Go on a fi eld 
trip, then designyour ownresponse. 
Play acooperativegame, thendesign your ownresponse. 
Think about apersonalexperience,
then design yourown response. 
Observe 
nature, thendesign yourownresponse. 
NaturalistAssessment 
Read a book,
then do anecology project. 
Examine astatistical chart,
then do anecology project. 
Watch a movie,
then do anecology project. 
Listen to a pieceof music, then doan ecologyproject. 
Go on a fi eld 
trip, then do anecology project. 
Play acooperativegame, then do anecology project. 
Think about apersonalexperience,
then do anecology project. 
Observe 
nature, thendo an ecologyproject. 


MI Theory and Assessment 

of the effects of pollution on their local community, they may have to read 
books, do fieldwork, listen to environmental songs, and engage in cooperative 
activities (inputs) in order to create a video that includes a montage of pictures, 
music, dialogue, and words (outputs). This complex project provides 
the teacher with a context-rich document (the video) within which to assess 
a students ecological competencies through a variety of intelligences. 

MI Portfolios 

As students increasingly engage in multiple intelligence projects and activities, 
the opportunities for documenting their learning process in MI portfolios 
expands considerably. In the past two decades, portfolio development 
among reform-minded educators has often been limited to work requiring 
the linguistic and logical-mathematical intelligences (writing portfolios 
and math portfolios). MI theory suggests, however, that portfolios ought to 
be expanded to include, when appropriate, materials from all eight intelligences. 
Figure 10.5 lists some of the kinds of documents that might be 
included in an MI portfolio. 

Naturally, the kinds of materials placed in an MI portfolio will depend upon 
the educational purposes and goals of each portfolio. There are at least five 
basic uses for portfolios. I call them The Five Cs of Portfolio Development: 

1. 
CelebrationTo acknowledge and validate students products and 
accomplishments during the year 
2. 
CognitionTo help students reflect upon their own work 
3. 
CommunicationTo let parents, administrators, and other teachers 
know about students learning progress 
4. 
CooperationTo provide a means for groups of students to collectively 
produce and evaluate their own work 
5. 
CompetencyTo establish criteria by which a students work can be 
compared to that of other students or to a standard or benchmark 
The checklist in Figure 10.6 can help you clarify some of the uses to which 
portfolios might be put in the classroom. 

The process of evaluating MI portfolios and other MI performances 
presents the most challenging aspect of their development. Reforms in 
assessment have emphasized the development of benchmarks, rubrics, or 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

10.5 

What to Put in an MI Portfolio 

To document linguistic intelligence: 

 Prewriting notes 
 Preliminary drafts of writing projects 
 Best samples of writing 
 Written descriptions of investigations 
 Audio recording of debates, discussions, problem-solving processes 
 Final reports 
 Dramatic interpretations 
 Reading skills checklists 
 Audio recording of reading or storytelling 
 Samples of word puzzles solved 
To document logical-mathematical intelligence: 

 Math skills checklists 
 Best samples of math papers 
 Rough notes from computations/problem-solving processes 
 Final write-ups of science lab experiments 
 Documentation of science fair projects (awards, photos) 
 Piagetian assessment materials 
 Samples of logic puzzles or brainteasers solved 
 Samples of computer programs created or learned 
To document spatial intelligence: 

 Photos of projects 
 Three-dimensional mockups 
 Diagrams, flow charts, sketches, or mind-maps of thinking 
 Samples or photos of collages, drawings, paintings 
 Video recordings of projects 
 Samples of visual-spatial puzzles solved 
To document bodily-kinesthetic intelligence: 

 Video recordings of projects and demonstrations 
 Samples of projects actually made 
 Videos or other records of the acting out of thinking processes 
 Photos of hands-on projects 
To document musical intelligence: 

 Audio recordings of musical performances, compositions, collages 
 Samples of written scores (performed or composed) 
 Lyrics of raps, songs, or rhymes written by student 
 Discographies compiled by student 

MI Theory and Assessment 

10.5 
What to Put in an MI Portfolio (continued) 
To document interpersonal intelligence: 
 Letters to and from others (e.g., writing to obtain information from someone) 
 Group reports 
 Written feedback from peers, teachers, and experts 
 Teacherstudent conference reports (summarized/transcribed) 
 Parentteacherstudent conference reports 
 Peer-group reports 
 Photos, videos, or write-ups of cooperative learning projects 
 Documentation of community service projects (certificates, photos) 
To document intrapersonal intelligence: 
 Journal entries 
 Self-assessment essays, checklists, drawings, activities 
 Samples of other self-reflection exercises 
 Questionnaires 
 Transcribed interviews on goals and plans 
 Interest inventories 
 Samples of outside hobbies or activities 
 Student-kept progress charts 
 Notes of self-reflection on own work 
To document naturalist intelligence: 
 Field notes from nature studies 
 Records of 4H or similar club participation 
 Photos of caring for animals or plants 
 Video recordings of demonstration of naturalist project 
 Record of volunteer efforts in ecological activities 
 Writings about love of nature or pets 
 Photos of nature collections (e.g., leaves, insects) 

other methods by which complex performances and works can be evaluated 
(see Herman, Aschbacher, & Winters, 1992). In my estimation, these 
devices are best suited only for the competency dimension of portfolio 
development. For the other four components, emphasis should be placed 
less on comparison and more on student self-evaluation and on ipsative 
measures (assessment that compares a student to his or her own past performances). 
Unfortunately, some teachers are using alternative assessment 
techniques to reduce students rich and complex works to holistic scores 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

10.6 

MI Portfolio Checklist 

How will you use the portfolio? 

 For student self-reflection (Cognition) 
 As part of regular school evaluation/report card (Competency) 
 At parent conferences (Communication, Competency) 
 In IEP/SST meetings (Communication, Competency) 
 In communicating to next years teacher(s) (Communication, Competency) 
 In curricular planning (Competency) 
 In acknowledging students accomplishments (Celebration) 
 In creating cooperative learning activities (Cooperation) 
 Other: 
How will it be organized? 

 Only finished pieces from a variety of subjects 
 Different expressions of a specific objective 
 Charting of progress from first idea to final realization 
 Representative samples of a weeks/months/years work 
 Only best work 
 Include group work 
 Other: 
What procedures will you use in placing items in the portfolio? 

 Select regular times for pulling student work 
 Train students to select (e.g., flagging with stickers) 
 Pull items that meet preset criteria 
 Random approach 
 Other: 
What will the portfolio look like? 

 Two pieces of posterboard stapled or taped together 
 Box or other container 
 Scrapbook 
 Diary or journal 
 Manila folder 
 Bound volume 
 CD or DVD 
 Web site or blog 
 Other: 
Who will evaluate the portfolio? 

 Teacher alone 
 Teacher working in collaboration with other teachers 
 Student self-evaluation 

MI Theory and Assessment 

10.6 
MI Portfolio Checklist (continued) 
 Peer evaluation 
 Other: 
How will the works in the portfolio be arranged? 
 Chronologically 
 By student: from crummy to great (with reasons given) 
 By teacher: from poor to superior (with reasons given) 
 From birth of an idea to its fruition 
 By subject area 
 Other: 
What factors will go into evaluating the portfolio? 
 Number of entries 
 Range of entries 
 Degree of self-reflection demonstrated 
 Improvement from past performances 
 Achievement of preset goals (students, teachers, schools) 
 Interplay of production, perception, and reflection 
 Responsiveness to feedback/mediation 
 Depth of revision 
 Group consensus (among teachers) 
 Willingness to take a risk 
 Development of themes 
 Use of benchmarks or rubrics for comparison 
 Other: 

or rankings like these: Portfolio A is a 1, Portfolio B is a 3; Child Cs art project 
is at a novice level, while Child Ds project is at a mastery level. This 
reductionism ends up looking very much like standardized testing in some 
of its worst moments. I suggest that we instead initially focus our attention 
in MI assessment on looking at individual students work in depth in terms 
of the unfolding of each students uniqueness (for appropriate assessment 
models of this kind, see Armstrong, 1980; Carini, 1977; and Engel, 1979). 

Ultimately, MI theory provides an assessment framework within which 
students can have their rich and complex lives acknowledged, celebrated, 
and nurtured. Because MI assessment and MI instruction represent flip 
sides of the same coin, MI approaches to assessment are not likely to take 
more time to implement as long as they are seen as an integral part of the 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

instructional process. As such, assessment experiences and instructional 
experiences should begin to appear virtually indistinguishable. Moreover, 
students engaged in this process should begin to regard the assessment 
experience not as a gruesome judgment day but, rather, as another opportunity 
to learn. 

For Further Study 


1. Choose an educational outcome that you are preparing students to 
reach, and then develop an MI-sensitive assessment measure that will allow 
students to demonstrate their competency in a number of ways (i.e., through 
two or more of the eight intelligences). 
2. Help students develop celebration portfolios that include elements 
from several intelligences (see Figure 10.5 for examples of what to put in a 
portfolio). Develop a set of procedures for selecting material (see Figure 
10.6) and a setting within which students can reflect on their portfolios and 
present them to others. 
3. Put on a Celebration of Learning fair at which students can demonstrate 
competencies and show products theyve made that relate to the 
eight intelligences. 
4. Focus on one method of documentation that youd like to explore, 
develop, or refine (including digital photography, video, audio, or electronic 
duplication of student work) and begin documenting student work using 
this medium. 
5. Keep a daily or weekly diary in which you record your observations 
of students demonstrating competency in each of the eight intelligences. 
6. Experiment with the kinds of inputs (methods of presentation) and 
outputs (methods of expression) you use in constructing assessments. Use 
Figure 10.4 as a guide in developing a variety of assessment contexts. 
7. Develop an ipsative assessment approach (i.e., one that compares a 
student to his or her own past performance) and compare its usefulness 
to other methods of assessment and evaluation (e.g., standardized tests, 
bench marked performances, holistically scored portfolios, etc.). 

11 

MI Theory and 
Special Education 

Treat people as if they were what they ought to be, and you help them to become 
what they are capable of being. 

Goethe 

The theory of multiple intelligences has broad implications for special education. 
By focusing on a wide spectrum of abilities, MI theory places disabilities 
in a broader context. Using MI theory as a backdrop, educators can 
begin to perceive children with special needs as whole persons pos sessing 
strengths in many intelligence areas. Over the history of the special education 
movement in the United States, educators have had a disturbing 
tendency (gifted educators excepted) to work from a deficit paradigm 
focusing on what students cant doin an attempt to help students succeed 
in school. As an example of this trend, Mary Poplin stated the following in 
her farewell address to her readership as editor of the Learning Disability 
Quarterly (LDQ): 

The horrifying truth is that in the four years I have been editor of LDQ, only 
one article has been submitted that sought to elaborate on the talents of the 
learning disabled. This is a devastating commentary on a field that is supposed 

149 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

to be dedicated to the education of students with average and above average 
intelligence. . . . Why do we not know if our students are talented in art, music, 
dance, athletics, mechanical repair, computer programming, or are creative 
in other nontraditional ways? . . . It is because, like regular educators, we care 
only about competence in its most traditional and bookish sensereading, 
writing, spelling, science, social studies and math in basal texts and worksheets. 
(Poplin, 1984, p. 133) 

Similar themes could also be identified in other areas of special education, 
including speech pathology, emotional disturbance, and attention deficit 
hyperactivity disorder, where the very terms themselves strongly suggest 
the operation of a disease paradigm in each case (see Armstrong 1987b, 
1997, 1999b). 

MI Theory as a Growth Paradigm 

We do not have to regard children with special needs primarily in terms of 
deficit, disorder, and disease. We can instead begin to work within the 
parameters of a growth paradigm. Figure 11.1 illustrates some of the key 
differences between deficit and growth paradigms. MI theory provides a 
growth paradigm for assisting special-needs students in school. It acknowledges 
difficulties or disabilities but does so within the context of regarding 
special-needs students as basically healthy, or neurodiverse, individuals 
(for information about the emerging concept of neurodiversity and its 
ap plication to special education programs, see Armstrong, 2005). MI theory 
suggests that learning disabilities, for example, may occur in all eight intelligences. 
That is, in addition to students with dyslexia (linguistic deficit) and 
dyscalculia (logical-mathematical deficit), some have prosopagnosia, or specific 
difficulties recognizing faces (a spatial deficit); ideomotor dyspraxia, or 
difficulty executing specific motor commands (bodily-kinesthetic deficit); 
dysmusia, or difficulty carrying a tune (musical deficit); dysemia, or difficulty 
reading nonverbal social signals, as well as specific personality disorders 
(intrapersonal deficit); and difficulty relating well to pets or working in 
gardens (nature deficit). These deficits, however, often operate relatively 
autonomously in the midst of other dimensions of the individuals learning 
profile that are relatively intact and healthy. MI theory thus provides a 
model for understanding the autistic savant who cannot communicate 
clearly with others but plays music at a professional level, the dyslexic who 
possesses special drawing or designing gifts, the developmentally disabled 


MI Theory and Special Education 

11.1 
The Deficit Paradigm Versus the Growth Paradigm in Special Education 
The Defi cit Paradigm 
 Labels the individual in terms of specific impairment(s) (e.g., ADHD, ED, BD, EMR, LD). 
 Diagnoses the specific impairment(s) using a battery of standardized tests; focuses on errors, low 
scores, and weaknesses in general. 
 Remediates the impairment(s) using a number of specialized treatment strategies often removed from 
any real-life context. 
 Separates the individual from the mainstream for specialized treatment in a segregated class, group, 
or program. 
 Uses an esoteric collection of terms, tests, programs, kits, materials, and workbooks that are different 
from those found in a regular classroom. 
 Segments the individuals life into specific behavioral/educational objectives that are regularly 
monitored, measured, and modified. 
 Creates special education programs that run on a track parallel with regular education programs; 
teachers from the two tracks rarely meet, except in IEP meetings. 
The Growth Paradigm 
 Avoids labels; views the individual as an intact person who happens to have a special need. 
 Assesses the needs of an individual using authentic assessment approaches within a naturalistic 
context; focuses on strengths. 
 Assists the person in learning and growing through a rich and varied set of interactions with real-life 
activities and events. 
 Maintains the individuals connections with peers in pursuing as normal a life pattern as possible. 
 Uses materials, strategies, and activities that are good for all kids. 
 Applies the understandings of biodiversity and cultural diversity to the neurodiversity of each student. 
 Establishes collaborative models that enable specialists and regular classroom teachers to work hand 
in hand. 

student who can act extremely well on the stage, or the student with cerebral 
palsy who has special linguistic and logical-mathematical genius. 

Successful Disabled Individuals 
as Models for Growth 

It may be instructive to study the lives of eminent individuals in history who 
struggled with disabilities of one kind or another. Such a study reveals, in 
fact, the existence of people with all types of special needs who are also 
exceptionally gifted in one or more of the eight intelligences. Figure 11.2 lists 
some of these creative individuals along with the specific disability they 
struggled with and the primary intelligence through which they expressed 
much of their genius. 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

11.2 
High-Achieving People Facing Personal Challenges 
Intelligence LD CD ED PD HD SD 
Linguistic Agatha 
Christie 
Demosthenes Edgar Allan 
Poe 
Alexander 
Pope 
Samuel 
Johnson 
Rudyard 
Kipling 
Logical-
Mathematical 
Albert 
Einstein 
Michael 
Faraday 
Charles 
Darwin 
Stephen 
Hawking 
Thomas 
Edison 
Johannes 
Kepler 
Spatial Leonardo 
da Vinci 
Marc Chagall Vincent 
Van Gogh 
Henri 
de Toulouse-
Lautrec 
Granville 
Redmond 
Otto Litzel 
Bodily-
Kinesthetic 
Auguste 
Rodin 
Admiral Peary Vaslav 
Nijinsky 
Jim Abbott Marlee Matlin Tom Sullivan 
Musical Sergei 
Rachmaninoff 
Maurice Ravel Robert 
Schumann 
Itzhak 
Perlman 
Ludwig van 
Beethoven 
Joaquin 
Rodrigo 
Interpersonal Nelson 
Rockefeller 
Winston 
Churchill 
Harry Stack 
Sullivan 
Franklin 
Roosevelt 
King Jordan Harry Truman 
Intrapersonal General 
George Patton 
Aristotle Friedrich 
Nietzsche 
Joan of Arc Helen Keller Aldous Huxley 
Naturalist Linnaeus Charles 
Darwin 
Gregor 
Mendel 
Jean Jacques 
Rousseau 
Johannes 
Kepler 
E. O. Wilson 

Note: LD = learning difficulties; CD = communicative difficulties; ED = emotional difficulties; PD = physical difficulties; 
HD = hearing difficulties; SD = sight difficulties. 

The persons in Figure 11.2 are known primarily for their achievements 
in life. In some cases, their disabilities were incidental to their accomplishments. 
In other cases, their disabilities may have helped spur them on to 
develop their exceptional abilities. MI theory provides a context for discussing 
these lives and for applying the understanding gained from such study 
to the lives of students who are struggling with similar problems. For example, 
a student with dyslexia can begin to understand that his difficulty may 
directly affect only a small part of one intelligence area (i.e., the reading 
dimensions of linguistic intelligence), leaving unimpaired vast regions of 
his learning potential. Its instructive to note, for instance, that many great 
writers, including Agatha Christie and Hans Christian Andersen, were dyslexic 
(Fleming, 1984; Goertzel, Goertzel, & Goertzel, 2004; Illingworth & Illingworth, 
1966). 


MI Theory and Special Education 

By constructing a perspective of special-needs students as whole individuals, 
MI theory provides a context for envisioning positive channels 
through which students can learn to deal with their disabilities. Educators 
who view disabilities against the background of the eight intelligences see 
that disabilities occur in only part of a students life; thus, they can begin 
to focus more attention on the strengths of special-needs students as a prerequisite 
to developing appropriate remedial strategies. Research on the 
self-fulfilling prophecy or Pygmalion effect suggests that the ways in 
which educators view a student can have a subtle but significant effect 
upon the quality of teaching the student receives and may help to determine 
the students ultimate success or failure in school (see Rosenthal & 
Jacobsen, 2004). 

Cognitive Bypassing 

Teachers and administrators need to serve as MI strength detectives in 
the lives of students facing difficulties in school. This kind of advocacy can 
lead the way toward providing positive solutions to their special needs. In 
particular, MI theory suggests that students who are not succeeding because 
of limitations in specific intelligence areas can often bypass these obstacles 
by using an alternative route, so to speak, that exploits their more highly 
developed intelligences (see Gardner, 1993a). 

In some cases, special-needs students can learn to use an alternative 
symbol system in an unimpaired intelligence. Its interesting to note that 
Braille, for example, has been used successfully with severely dyslexic students 
who possessed special strengths in tactile sensitivity (McCoy, 1975). 
Similarly, researchers have reported more success in teaching a group 
of reading-disabled students Chinese characters than in teaching them 
En glish sight words (Rozin, Poritsky, & Sotsky, 1971). In this case, an ideographic 
symbol system (Chinese) worked more successfully with these spatially 
oriented youngsters than the linguistic (sound-symbol) English code. 

In other cases, the empowering strategy may involve an assistive technology 
or special learning tool. For example, the Kurzweil Reader provides 
individuals who cannot decode the printed word (due to learning or perceptual 
difficulties) a means of electronically scanning a printed page and 
having those signals transformed into sound impulses that can be heard and 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

understood. Similarly, mathematical calculators have come to the rescue of 
individuals with severe dyscalculia and other math-processing difficulties. 
Sometimes, the empowering strategy is a human resource, as in the case of 
a therapist (for those struggling with difficulties in the personal intelligences), 
a coach (for those with behavioral problems), or a tutor (for those 
with special learning difficulties). Figure 11.3 lists other important empowering 
strategies. It shows how a difficulty in one intelligence can often be successfully 
overcome by rerouting a task through a more highly developed 
intelligence. 

The same basic approach used to empower special-needs students can 
also be employed in developing appropriate instructional strategies. The 
underlying procedure involves translating information in the intelligence 
language that students have trouble learning or understanding into an 
intelligence language that students do understand. Figure 11.4 provides a 
few examples. 

Essentially, the approach to developing remedial strategies is the same 
one used in creating eight-way lesson plans and units for the regular classroom 
(see Chapter 5). This confluence of regular and special education 
methodology reinforces the fundamental growth-paradigm emphasis inherent 
in MI theory. In other words, the best learning activities for special-
needs students are those that are most successful with all students. What 
may be different, however, is the way in which lessons are specifically tailored 
to the needs of individual students or small groups of students. 

MI Theory in the Development of IEPs 

MI theory lends itself particularly well to the development of teaching strategies 
in individualized educational programs (IEPs) developed as part of 
a students special education program. In particular, MI theory can help 
teachers identify a students strengths, and this information can serve as a 
basis for deciding what kinds of interventions are most appropriate for 
inclusion in the IEP. 

All too often a student having problems in a specific area will be given an 
IEP that neglects his most developed intelligences while concentrating on his 
weaknesses. For instance, a student with well-developed bodily-kinesthetic 
and spatial intelligences may be having difficulty learning to read. In many 


MI Theory and Special Education 

11.3Strategies and Tools for Empowering Intelligences in Areas of DifficultyArea ofDiffi culty 
LinguisticStrategiesand Tools 
Logical-
MathematicalStrategiesand Tools 
SpatialStrategiesand Tools 
MusicalStrategiesand Tools 
Bodily-
KinestheticStrategiesand Tools 
InterpersonalStrategiesand Tools 
IntrapersonalStrategiesand Tools 
NaturalistStrategiesand Tools 
LinguisticDiffi culty 
Tape recorder,
Kurzweil Reader 
Spell/grammarcheck software 
Ideographiclanguages 
Song lyrics Braille Human readers orperson to takedictation 
Open-endedjournal 
Reading basedon nature, plants,
and animals 
Logical-
MathematicalDiffi culty 
Calculators Math tutoringsoftwareprograms 
Arts, diagrams,
graphs 
Exploring musicand mathconnections 
Abacus and othermanipulatives 
Math tutor Self-paced mathor scienceprograms 
Using scientifi c 
instruments toobserve nature 
SpatialDiffi culty 
Talking books 
and tapes,
talking tours 
Computer-
assisteddesign (CAD)
software 
Magnifi ers, maps Walking stick with 
tone sensor 
Relief maps,
Mowat sensor 
Personal guide Self-guided tours Smell gardens/
touching zoos 
Bodily-
KinestheticDiffi culty 
How-to books Virtual realitysoftware 
Choreographydiagrams 
Neurofeedbackusing tones 
Mobility devices(e.g., motorized 
wheelchair) 
Personalcompanion 
Feedback fromvideotape 
Caninecompanion 
MusicalDiffi culty 
Rhythmic poetry Music software Machine thattranslates musicinto a sequence ofcolored lights 
Tapes, CDs,
records 
Amplifi ed 
vibrating musicalinstruments 
Music teacher Self-pacedmusic lessons 
Recordingsof the sounds ofdifferent kindsof ecosystems 
InterpersonalDiffi culty 
Talking cure in 
psychotherapy 
Cognitive therapy Movies oninterpersonalthemes 
Music groups(e.g., choir) 
Outward Boundadventures 
Recovery/selfhelp 
supportgroups 
Individualpsychotherapy 
Sierra Clubactivities 
IntrapersonalDiffi culty 
Self-help books Personal digitalassistant (PDA) 
Art therapy Music therapy Obstacle courses Psychotherapist Retreats, solitude Vision questin nature 
NaturalistDiffi culty 
Field guides,
NationalGeographicmagazine 
Taxonomies and 
classifi cation 
systems 
Nature programson PBS, TLC, and 
the Discovery 
Channel 
Recordings of birdsongs and othernature/animalsounds 
Extensive naturewalks 
Expert natureguide, volunteer 
for ecologyorganization 
Taking care of a 
pet, planting a 
garden, or other 
solo natureproject 
Campingand hikingexperiences 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

11.4 
Examples of MI Remedial Strategies for Specific Topics 
Strategy Letter Reversals: 
b and d 
The Three States 
of Matter 
Understanding Simple 
Fractions 
Linguistic 
Remedial 
Strategy 
Identify through context in 
words or sentences 
Give verbal descriptions, 
assign reading matter 
Use storytelling, word 
problems 
Logical-
Mathematical 
Remedial 
Strategy 
Play anagrams or other 
word-pattern games 
Classify substances in the 
classroom 
Show math ratios on 
number line 
Spatial 
Remedial 
Strategy 
Color code bs and ds; use 
stylistic features unique to 
each letter; create 
pictures out of letters 
(e.g., bed where the 
stems are the posts) 
Draw pictures of different 
states; look at pictures of 
molecules in different 
states 
Look at a diagram of 
pies; draw pictures 
Bodily-
Kinesthetic 
Remedial 
Strategy 
Use kinesthetic mnemonic 
(put fists together, thumbs 
upraised, palms facing 
youthis makes a bed) 
Act out the three states in 
a dance; do hands-on lab 
experiments; build models 
of three states 
Put together manipulative 
puzzles divided into 
fractions 
Musical 
Remedial 
Strategy 
Sing songs with lots of bs 
and ds in them to help 
differentiate 
Play musical recording at 
three different speeds 
Play a fraction of a song 
(e.g., one note of a three-
note song) 
Interpersonal 
Remedial 
Strategy 
Give letter cards with bs 
and ds randomly to 
students; have them find 
others with their sound 
(aurally) and then check 
answers visually with cards 
Create the three states as 
a class (each person as a 
molecule) 
Divide the class into 
different fraction pies 
Intrapersonal 
Remedial 
Strategy 
List favorite words that 
begin with b and d 
Examine the three states in 
ones body, home, and 
neighborhood 
Choose a favorite fraction 
and collect specific 
instances of it 
Naturalist 
Remedial 
Strategy 
List favorite animals and 
plants that begin with 
b and d 
Examine the three states 
as they exist in nature 
(e.g., clouds, rain, sand) 
Divide apples or other food 
items into segments 


MI Theory and Special Education 

schools today, he would be given an IEP that fails to include bodily-kinesthetic 
and spatial activities as a means of achieving his educational objectives. Frequently, 
the interventions suggested for such a student will include more linguistic 
tasks, such as reading programs and auditory awareness activitiesin 
other words, more concentrated and controlled doses of the same sorts of 
tasks the student was failing at in the regular classroom. 

MI theory suggests a fundamentally different approach: teaching through 
intelligences that have been previously neglected by educators working 
with the child. Figure 11.5 shows examples of IEPs that might be written for 
students who have had difficulty learning to read yet possess strengths in 
other intelligence areas. Note that these examples accommodate the students 
learning differences at both the instructional level and the assessment 
level. 

The Broad Implications of MI 
Theory for Special Education 

The influence that MI theory can have on special education goes far beyond 
the development of new remedial strategies and interventions. If MI theory is 
implemented on a large scale in both the regular and special education programs 
in a school district, it is likely to have some of the following effects: 

Fewer referrals to special education classes: When the regular curriculum 
includes the full spectrum of intelligences, referrals to special education 
classes will decline. Most teachers now focus on the linguistic and mathematical 
intelligences, neglecting the needs of students who learn best 
through the musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, or intrapersonal 
intelligences. It is these students who most often fail in regular classrooms 
and are placed in special settings (Armstrong, 1987a; Schirduan & 
Case, 2004). Once regular classrooms themselves become more sensitive to 
the needs of different kinds of learners through MI learning programs, the 
need for special placement, especially for learning disabilities and behavior 
problems, will diminish. This model thus supports the full inclusion movement 
in education (Kluth, 2003). 

A changing role for the special education teacher: The special education 
teacher or learning specialist will begin to function less as a pullout 
or special class teacher and more as a special MI consultant to the regular 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

11.5 
Sample MI Plans for Individualized Education Programs 
Subject: Reading 
Short-Term Instructional Goal: When presented with an unfamiliar piece of childrens literature with a 
readability level of beginning 2nd grade, the student will be able to effectively decode 80 percent of the 
words and answer four out of five comprehension questions based on its content. 
Plan 1: For a Child with Strong Bodily-Kinesthetic and Spatial Intelligences 
Student can 
 Act out (mime) new words and the content of new stories. 
 Make new words into pictures (e.g., hanging lights on the word street). 
 Sculpt new words using clay. 
 Draw pictures expressing the content of books. 
Assessment: Student is allowed to move his body while reading the book; student can answer content 
questions by drawing answers rather than (or in addition to) responding orally. 
Plan 2: For a Child with Strong Musical and Interpersonal Intelligences 
Student can 
 Make up songs using new words. 
 Play board games or card games that require learning new words. 
 Use simple song books as reading material (singing lyrics accompanied by music). 
 Read childrens literature to another child. 
 Teach a younger child to read. 
Assessment: Student is allowed to sing while reading a book; student may demonstrate competency by 
reading a book to another child or answering content questions posed by a peer. 

classroom teacher. In this new role, MI consultants, perhaps operating like 
Gardners studentcurriculum brokers (see Chapter 9), can assist regular 
classroom teachers in some of the following tasks: 

 Identifying students strongest intelligences 
 Focusing on the needs of specific students 
 Designing MI curricula 
 Creating specific MI interventions 
 Working with groups using MI activities 
All or most of a special-needs/MI teachers time can be spent in the regular 
classroom focusing on the individual needs of students and the targeting 
of special MI activities to achieve educational outcomes. 


MI Theory and Special Education 

A greater emphasis on identifying strengths: Teachers assessing 
special-needs students will likely put more emphasis on identifying the 
strengths of students. Qualitative and authentic measures (such as those 
described in Chapters 3 and 10) are likely to have a larger role in special 
education and may perhaps even begin to supplant standardized diagnostic 
measures as a means of developing appropriate educational programs. 

Increased self-esteem: With more emphasis placed on the strengths 
and abilities of special-needs children, students self-esteem and internal 
locus of control are likely to rise, thus helping to promote success among a 
broader community of learners. 

Increased understanding and appreciation of students: As students 
use MI theory to make sense of their individual differences, their tolerance, 
understanding, and appreciation of those with special needs is likely to rise, 
making their full integration into the regular classroom more likely. 

Ultimately, the adoption of MI theory in education will move special 
education toward a growth paradigm and facilitate a greater level of cooperation 
between special education and regular education. MI classrooms 
will then become the least restrictive environment for all special-needs students 
except the most disruptive. 

For Further Study 


1. Develop a curriculum unit for use in a regular or special-needs classroom 
that focuses upon famous individuals who overcame disabilities. 
Include biographies, videos, posters, and other materials. Discuss with students 
how a disability accounts for only one part of an individuals life as a 
total person. Use MI theory as a model for regarding disabilities as glitches 
in basically whole human beings. 
2. Identify a special-needs student who is currently not succeeding in the 
school system. Using some of the strategies suggested in Chapter 3, identify 
the students strengths in terms of the theory of multiple intelligences. 
Brainstorm as many strengths as possible, including strengths that combine 
several intelligences. Then discuss with colleagues how this process of 
strengths assessment can affect their overall view of the student and generate 
new solutions for helping her. 

Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

3. Identify a special-needs student in your program who is having school-
related difficulties because of limitations in one particular intelligence. Identify 
specific empowering tools (e.g., alternative symbol systems, learning 
materials, assistive technologies, human resources) that can be used to help 
reroute the problem into more developed intelligences. Choose two or 
three of the most appropriate and available tools to apply to the students 
particular need(s). Evaluate the results. 
4. Write multiple intelligence strategies into a students IEP based upon 
the students strengths in one or more intelligences. 
5. Meet with a regular classroom teacher (if you are a special education 
teacher) or a specialist (if you are a regular classroom teacher) and discuss 
ways in which you can collaboratively use MI strategies to help special-
needs kids succeed in the mainstream. 
6. Work individually with a special-needs child (or a small group of children) 
and help him (or them) become aware of his (their) special strengths 
in terms of MI theory (see Armstrong, 2003, and Margulies, 1995). 

12 

MI Theory and 
Cognitive Skills 


Though man a thinking being is defined, 
Few use the grand prerogative of mind. 
How few think justly of the thinking few! 
How many never think, who think they do! 

Jane Taylor 

With the advent of cognitive psychology as the predominant paradigm in 
education, educators have become increasingly interested in helping students 
develop thinking strategies. How students think has become almost 
more important than what they think about. MI theory provides an ideal 
context for making sense out of students cognitive skills. The eight intelligences 
in the model are themselves cognitive capacities. Hence, to develop 
any or all of them in the ways described in previous chapters is to facilitate 
the cultivation of students ability to think. It may be helpful, however, to 
look more specifically at how MI theory applies to the areas most often 
emphasized by educators espousing a cognitive approach to learning, memory, 
problem solving, and other forms of higher-order thinking, including 
Blooms levels of cognitive complexity. 

161 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

Memory 

Classroom teachers have always seemed troubled by the problem of students 
memories. They knew it yesterday, but today its gone is a familiar 
refrain. Its as if I never even taught it. Whats the point? many teachers 
lament. Helping students retain what they learn appears to be one of educations 
most pressing and unresolved issues. MI theory provides a helpful 
perspective on this age-old educational problem. It suggests that the notion 
of a pure memory is flawed. Memory, according to Howard Gardner, is 
intelligence-specific (Gardner, 2006a, p. 76). There is no such thing as a 
good memory or a bad memory until an intelligence is specified. Thus, 
one may have a good memory for faces (spatial/interpersonal intelligence) 
but a poor memory for names and dates (linguistic/logical-mathematical 
intelligence). One may have a superior ability to recall a tune (musical intelligence) 
but not be able to remember the dance step that accompanies it 
(bodily-kinesthetic intelligence). 

This new perspective on memory suggests that students with poor 
memories may have poor memories in only one or two of the intelligences. 
The problem, however, may be that their poor memories are in one or both 
of the intelligence areas most frequently emphasized in school: linguistic 
and logical-mathematical intelligence. The solution, then, lies in helping 
these students gain access to their good memories in other intelligences 
(e.g., musical, spatial, and bodily-kinesthetic). Memory training, or work 
involving memorization of material in any subject, should therefore be 
taught in such a way that all eight memories are activated. 

Spelling is an academic area that has typically relied heavily upon memory 
skills. Unfortunately, most instructional approaches to studying spelling 
words have involved the use of only linguistic strategies: write the word five 
times, use the word in a sentence, spell the word out loud, and so forth. MI 
theory suggests that problem spellers may need to go beyond these auditory, 
oral, and written strategies (all linguistic) to find success. Here are 
some examples of how the orthographic structure of linguistic symbols (i.e., 
the English alphabet) can be linked to other intelligences to enhance the 
retention of spelling words: 

 
MusicalSpelling words can be sung. For example, any seven-letter 
word (or multiple of seven) can be sung to the tune of Twinkle, Twinkle 

MI Theory and Cognitive Skills 

Little Star, and any six-letter word can be sung to the tune of Happy 
Birthday to You. 

 
SpatialSpelling words can be visualized. Students can be introduced 
to an inner blackboard or other mental screen in their minds eye. 
During study, students place words on the mental screen; during test 
time, students simply refer to their inner blackboard for help. Other 
spatial approaches include color coding spelling patterns, drawing 
spelling words as pictures (e.g., the word sun can be drawn with rays 
of light emanating from the word), and reducing spelling words to configurations 
or graphic outlines showing spatial placement of stems. 
 
Logical-mathematicalSpelling words can be digitalized, that is, 
reduced to a series of 0s and 1s (consonants = 1, vowels = 0); spelling 
words can also be coded using other sorts of number systems (e.g., 
assigning a number to a letter depending upon its placement in the 
alphabet: a = 1, b = 2, etc.). 
 
Bodily-kinestheticSpelling words can be translated into whole-body 
movements (creating postures that mimic each of the letters of the 
alphabet). Other bodily-kinesthetic approaches include tracing spelling 
words in sand, molding spelling words in clay, and using body 
movements to show patterns in words (e.g., stand up on the vowels, 
sit down on the consonants). 
 
InterpersonalWords can be spelled by a group of people. For example, 
each student has a letter, and when a word is called, students who 
have the letters in the word form the word with the other students. 
 
IntrapersonalStudents can spell words developmentally (i.e., the 
way they think theyre spelled), or students learn to spell words that 
have a personal emotional charge. 
 
NaturalistStudents can spell words using natural materials (e.g., 
twigs, leaves, stems, etc.) or do their spelling words in a natural setting 
(e.g., making their spelling words with a stick on the ground in a 
nearby field). 
The task for the teacher, then, is to help students associate the material 
to be learned with components of the different intelligences: words, numbers, 
pictures, physical movements, musical phrases, social interactions, 
personal feelings and experiences, and natural phenomena. After students 
have been exposed to memory strategies from all eight intelligences, they 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

will be able to pick out those strategies that work best for them and be able 
to use them independently during personal study periods. 

Problem Solving 

Although research studies suggest that over the past few years U.S. students 
have improved their performance on rote learning tasks such as spelling 
and arithmetic, they place U.S. students far down the achievement ladder in 
comparisons with students in other countries on measures of higher-order 
cognitive processes. In particular, U.S. students problem-solving abilities 
have been regarded as in need of significant improvement (Lemke et al., 
2004). Consequently, more and more educators are looking for ways to help 
students think more effectively when confronted with academic problems. 
Unfortunately, the bias in the critical-thinking movement has been in the 
direction of logical-mathematical reasoning abilities and in the use of self-
talk or other linguistic strategies. MI theory suggests that thinking can and 
frequently does go far beyond these two areas. To illustrate what these 
other forms of problem-solving behavior look like, it may be helpful to 
review the thinking processes of eminent individuals whose discoveries 
have helped shape the world we live in (see John-Steiner, 1987, and Gardner, 
1993b). By studying the end-states of specific problem-solving processes 
in these great people, educators can learn much that can help foster the 
same sort of processes in their students. 

Many thinkers have used imagery and picture language (spatial intelligence) 
to help them in their work. The physicist John Howarth described his 
problem-solving processes as follows: 

I make abstract pictures. I just realized that the process of abstraction in the 
pictures in my head is similar to the abstraction you engage in dealing with 
physical problems analytically. You reduce the number of variables, simplify 
and consider what you hope is the essential part of the situation you are dealing 
with; then you apply your analytical techniques. In making a visual picture 
it is possible to choose one which contains representations of only the essential 
elementsa simplified picture, abstracted from a number of other pictures 
and containing their common elements. (John-Steiner, 1987, pp. 8485) 

Others have used problem-solving strategies that combine visual-spatial 
images with certain kinetic or bodily-kinesthetic features of the mind. 
Albert Einstein, for example, frequently performed thought-experiments 


MI Theory and Cognitive Skills 

that helped him develop his relativity theory, including a fantasy that 
involved riding on the end of a beam of light. When asked by a French mathematician 
to describe his thinking processes, Einstein said they included 
elements that were of visual and muscular type (Ghiselin, 1955). Similarly, 
Henri Poincar shares the story of how he struggled for days with a vexing 
mathematical problem: 

For fifteen days I strove to prove that there could not be any functions like 
those I have since called Fuchsian functions. I was then very ignorant; every 
day I seated myself at my work table, stayed an hour or two, tried a great 
number of combinations and reached no results. One evening, contrary to my 
custom, I drank black coffee and could not sleep. Ideas rose in crowds; I felt 
them collide until pairs interlocked [italics mine], so to speak, making a stable 
combination. By the next morning, I had established the existence of a class of 
Fuchsian functions, those which come from the hypergeometric series; I had 
only to write out the results which took but a few hours. (Ghiselin, 1955, p. 36) 

Musicians speak about a very different kind of problem-solving capacity, 
one that involves access to musical imagery. Mozart explained his own composing 
process this way: Nor do I hear in my imagination the parts [of the 
composition] successively, but I hear them, as it were, all at once. What a 
delight this is I cannot tell. All this inventing, this producing, takes place 
in a pleasing lively dream (Ghiselin, 1955, p. 45). Einstein acknowledged 
the operation of musical thought in a logical-mathematical/spatial domain 
when, referring to Nils Bohrs model of the atom, with its orbiting electrons 
absorbing and releasing energy, he wrote, This is the highest form of musicality 
in the sphere of thought (Clark, 1972, p. 292). 

There are even processes unique to the personal intelligences. For 
example, a commentator reflecting on the interpersonal intelligence of Lyndon 
B. Johnson said, Lots of guys can be smiling and deferential. He had 
something else. No matter what someone thought, Lyndon would agree with 
himwould be there ahead of him, in fact. He could follow someones mind 
aroundand figure out where it was going and beat it there (Caro, 1990, 

p. 256). In a more intrapersonal fashion, Marcel Proust used simple sensations 
like the taste of a pastry to evoke inner feelings that swept him back 
into the days of his childhooda context that provided the basis for his 
masterwork, Remembrance of Things Past (see Proust, 1928, pp. 5458). 
Finally, in the naturalist domain, a study of Charles Darwins notebooks 
reveals that he used the image of a tree to help him generate the theory of 

Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

evolution: Organized beings represent a tree, irregularly branched, . . . as 
many terminal buds dying as new ones generated (Gruber, 1977, p. 126). 

How these end-state cognitive processes translate into classroom 
practice may seem at first elusive. It is possible, however, to distill certain 
basic elements from the problem-solving strategies of the geniuses of culture 
and create strategies that can be learned even by students in the primary 
grades. For example, students can learn to visualize their ideas in 
much the same way Einstein performed his thought-experiments. They can 
learn to sketch metaphorical images that relate to problems they are working 
on much as Darwin worked with natural images in his own notebooks. 
The following list indicates the wide range of MI problem-solving strategies 
that could be used by students in academic settings: 

 
LinguisticSelf-talk or thinking out loud (see Perkins, 1981) 
 
Logical-mathematicalLogical heuristics (see Polya, 1957) 
 
SpatialVisualization, idea sketching, mind-mapping (see Margulies, 
1991, and McKim, 1980) 
 
Bodily-kinestheticKinesthetic imagery (see Gordon & Poze, 1966); 
also, accessing gut feelings or using ones hands, fingers, or whole 
body to solve problems 
 
MusicalSensing the rhythm or melody of a problem (e.g., harmony 
versus dissonance); using music to unlock problem-solving 
capa cities (see Ostrander & Schroeder, 1979) 
 
InterpersonalBouncing ideas off other people (see Johnson, Johnson, 
& Holubec, 1994) 
 
IntrapersonalIdentifying with the problem; accessing dream imagery, 
personal feelings that relate to the problem; deep introspection 
(see Harman & Rheingold, 1984) 
 
NaturalistUsing analogies from nature to envision problems and 
solutions (see Gordon & Poze, 1966) 
Once students have been introduced to strategies like these, they can 
choose from a cognitive menu the approaches that are likely to be successful 
for them in any given learning situation. This kind of cognitive training 
can prove far richer than the traditional thinking skills program, which all 
too often consists of worksheets containing games and puzzles detailing the 
five-step sequence involved in solving a math word problem. In the future, 


MI Theory and Cognitive Skills 

when students are urged by a teacher to think harder, students will have 
the luxury of asking, In which intelligence? 

Promoting Christopherian Encounters 

In his book The Unschooled Mind, Howard Gardner (1991) addresses the 
tendency of contemporary schooling to teach students surface-level knowledge 
without ever affecting their deeper understanding of the world. As a 
result, students are graduating from high school, college, and even graduate 
school still holding on to many of the same naive beliefs they held as preschoolers. 
In one example, 70 percent of college students who had completed 
a physics course in mechanics said that a coin tossed up in the air 
has two forces acting upon it, the downward force of gravity and the upward 
force coming from the hand (the truth is only gravity exerts a force [Gardner, 
1991]). Supposedly well-educated students who can spout algorithms, 
rules, laws, and principles in a variety of domains still harbor, according to 
Gardner, a minefield of misconceptions, rigidly applied procedures, stereotypes, 
and simplifications. What is required is an approach to education that 
challenges naive beliefs, provokes questions, invites multiple perspectives, 
and ultimately stretches a students mind to the point where it can apply 
existing knowledge to new situations and novel contexts. 

Gardner suggests that a students mind can be expanded through the use 
of Christopherian encounters. Although Gardner uses the term specifically 
in reference to exploding misconceptions in the field of science, this phrases 
can serve as a beautiful metaphor for the expansion in general of a childs 
multiple intelligences to higher levels of competence and understanding. 
Just as Christopher Columbus challenged the notion that the earth is flat by 
sailing beyond the edge and thereby demonstrating its curved shape, so, 
too, Gardner suggests that educators challenge students limited beliefs by 
taking them over the edge into areas where they must confront the contradictions 
and disjunctions in their own thinking. Its possible to apply this 
general approach to multiple intelligences theory by suggesting examples in 
which students minds might be stretched in each of the intelligences: 

 
LinguisticMoving students beyond the literal interpretation of a piece 
of literature (e.g., the novel Moby Dick is more than a sea yarn about a 
whale) 

Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

 
Logical-mathematicalDevising science experiments that force students 
to confront contradictions in their thinking about natural phenomena 
(e.g., asking students to predict how a ball rolled straight from 
the center of a rotating merry-go-round will move as it reaches the 
edge and then discussing the outcome) 
 
SpatialHelping students confront tacit beliefs about art that might, 
for example, include the prejudice that paintings should use pleasant 
colors and depict beautiful scenery and attractive people (e.g., showing 
students Picassos painting Guernica, which does not contain those 
characteristics) 
 
Bodily-kinestheticMoving students beyond stereotypical ways of using 
their bodies to express certain feelings or ideas in a dance or play (e.g., 
helping students explore the wide range of body postures and facial 
expressions for expressing Willy Lomans sense of defeat in Arthur 
Millers Death of a Salesman) 
 
MusicalHelping students undo stereotypes that might suggest good 
music should be harmonious and have a regular beat (e.g., playing 
students Stravinskys Rite of Springa piece that caused a riot when 
first played because it clashed with the listeners beliefs about what 
was good music) 
 
InterpersonalHelping students go beyond the imputation of simplistic 
motivations in studying fictional or real characters in literature, 
history, or other fields (e.g., helping students understand that Holden 
Caulfields intentions in Catcher in the Rye involved more than a desire 
for a night on the town or that Adolf Hitlers rise to power was motivated 
by more than a thirst for power) 
 
IntrapersonalDeepening students understanding of themselves by 
relating different parts of the curriculum to their own personal life 
experiences and backgrounds (e.g., asking students to think of the 
Huck Finn or Laura Ingalls Wilder part of themselves) 
 
NaturalistChallenging students to critically examine the evidence 
supporting the theory of evolution versus the idea that the earth was 
created 6,000 years ago 
MI theory must be seen as more than simply a process by which students 
celebrate and begin to activate their many ways of knowing. Educators 
must help students develop higher levels of understanding through their 
multiple intelligences. By making certain that Christopherian encounters 


MI Theory and Cognitive Skills 

in each intelligence are a regular part of the school day, educators can help 
ensure that the unschooled mind will truly develop into a powerful and creative 
thinking force. 

MI Theory and Blooms Levels 
of Cognitive Complexity 

Almost 40 years ago, University of Chicago professor Benjamin S. Bloom 
(1956) unveiled his famous taxonomy of educational objectives. This survey 
included a cognitive domain, and its six levels of complexity have been 
used over the past four decades as a gauge by which educators can ensure 
that instruction stimulates and develops students higher-order thinking 
capacities. The six levels are 

1. 
KnowledgeRote memory skills (knowing facts, terms, procedures, 
classification systems) 
2. 
ComprehensionThe ability to translate, paraphrase, interpret, or 
extrapolate material 
3. 
ApplicationThe capacity to transfer knowledge from one setting to 
another 
4. 
AnalysisDiscovering and differentiating the component parts of a 
larger whole 
5. 
SynthesisWeaving together component parts into a coherent whole 
6. 
EvaluationJudging the value or utility of information using a set of 
standards 
Blooms taxonomy provides a kind of quality-control mechanism through 
which one can judge how deeply students minds have been stirred by a 
multiple intelligence curriculum. It would be easy to construct MI instructional 
methods that appeared compellingowing to the wide range of intelligences 
addressedbut that kept learning at the knowledge or rote level of 
cognitive complexity. MI activities for teaching spelling, the times tables, or 
history facts are prime examples of MI theory in the service of lower-order 
cognitive skills. MI curricula, however, can be designed to incorporate all of 
Blooms levels of cognitive complexity. The curriculum outline presented in 
Figure 12.1 shows how a teacher can articulate competencies that address 
all eight intelligences as well as Blooms six levels of cognitive complexity. 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom170 
12.1MI Theory and Blooms TaxonomyEcology Unit: Local environmenttrees in your neighborhoodBlooms Six Levels of Educational ObjectivesIntelligence Knowledge Comprehension Application Analysis Synthesis Evaluation 
LinguisticIntelligence 
memorize namesof trees 
explain how treesreceive nutrients 
given description of treediseases, suggest cause 
of each disease 
describe how each partof a tree functions inrelation to the whole 
write a paper describingthe life cycle of atree from pre-seed topost-seed 
rate different methodsof controlling treegrowth 
Logical-
MathematicalIntelligence 
remember number ofpoints on specifi c trees 
leaves 
convert English tometric in calculatingheight of tree 
given height of smallertree, estimate height of 
larger tree 
analyze materials foundin sap residue 
given weather, soil,
and other information,
chart projected growthof a tree 
rate different kinds oftree nutrients based ondata 
SpatialIntelligence 
remember basicconfi gurations ofspecifi c trees 
look at diagrams oftrees and tell what stageof growth they are in 
use geometric principlesto determine height oftree 
draw cellular structureof tree root 
create a landscapingplan using trees ascentral feature 
evaluate practicality ofdifferent landscapingplans 
Bodily-
KinestheticIntelligence 
identify tree by the feelof the bark 
given array of tree fruits,
identify seeds 
given type of local tree,
fi nd an ideal location for 
planting it 
create different parts oftree from clay 
gather all materialsneeded for plantinga tree 
evaluate the quality ofdifferent kinds of fruit 
MusicalIntelligence 
remember songs thatdeal with trees 
explain how old treesongs came into being 
change the lyrics of anold tree song to refl ect 
current issues 
classify songs by issueand historical period 
create your own treesong based oninformation in this unit 
rate the songs from bestto worst and givereasons for your choicesInterpersonalIntelligence 
record responses to thequestion What is your 
favorite tree? 
determine the mostpopular tree in class byinterviewing others 
use survey results to 
pick location for fi eld 
trip to orchard 
classify kids into groupsaccording to favoritetree 
arrange fi eld trip to 
orchard by contactingnecessary people 
rank three methods toask others about treepreference 
IntrapersonalIntelligence 
remember a time youclimbed a tree 
share the primary 
feeling you had while upin the tree 
develop tree-climbingrules based on your 
experience 
divide up yourexperience intobeginning, middle,
and end 
plan a tree-climbingexpedition based onyour past experience 
explain what you likedbest and least about 
your experience 
NaturalistIntelligence 
learn to discriminatedifferent tree leavesby sight 
describe how otherliving beings (e.g.,
humans, animals) 
benefi t from trees 
create a system forclassifying different treeleaves 
analyze the function of agiven tree in terms ofthe larger ecosystem inwhich it fi nds itself 
develop an approach forprotecting specifi c types 
of trees in yourneighborhood fromdamage or disease 
evaluate which trees inyour neighborhood aremost eco-valuable tothe surroundingenvironment 
12.1MI Theory and Blooms TaxonomyEcology Unit: Local environmenttrees in your neighborhoodBlooms Six Levels of Educational ObjectivesIntelligence Knowledge Comprehension Application Analysis Synthesis Evaluation 
LinguisticIntelligence 
memorize namesof trees 
explain how treesreceive nutrients 
given description of treediseases, suggest cause 
of each disease 
describe how each partof a tree functions inrelation to the whole 
write a paper describingthe life cycle of atree from pre-seed topost-seed 
rate different methodsof controlling treegrowth 
Logical-
MathematicalIntelligence 
remember number ofpoints on specifi c trees 
leaves 
convert English tometric in calculatingheight of tree 
given height of smallertree, estimate height of 
larger tree 
analyze materials foundin sap residue 
given weather, soil,
and other information,
chart projected growthof a tree 
rate different kinds oftree nutrients based ondata 
SpatialIntelligence 
remember basicconfi gurations ofspecifi c trees 
look at diagrams oftrees and tell what stageof growth they are in 
use geometric principlesto determine height oftree 
draw cellular structureof tree root 
create a landscapingplan using trees ascentral feature 
evaluate practicality ofdifferent landscapingplans 
Bodily-
KinestheticIntelligence 
identify tree by the feelof the bark 
given array of tree fruits,
identify seeds 
given type of local tree,
fi nd an ideal location for 
planting it 
create different parts oftree from clay 
gather all materialsneeded for plantinga tree 
evaluate the quality ofdifferent kinds of fruit 
MusicalIntelligence 
remember songs thatdeal with trees 
explain how old treesongs came into being 
change the lyrics of anold tree song to refl ect 
current issues 
classify songs by issueand historical period 
create your own treesong based oninformation in this unit 
rate the songs from bestto worst and givereasons for your choicesInterpersonalIntelligence 
record responses to thequestion What is your 
favorite tree? 
determine the mostpopular tree in class byinterviewing others 
use survey results to 
pick location for fi eld 
trip to orchard 
classify kids into groupsaccording to favoritetree 
arrange fi eld trip to 
orchard by contactingnecessary people 
rank three methods toask others about treepreference 
IntrapersonalIntelligence 
remember a time youclimbed a tree 
share the primary 
feeling you had while upin the tree 
develop tree-climbingrules based on your 
experience 
divide up yourexperience intobeginning, middle,
and end 
plan a tree-climbingexpedition based onyour past experience 
explain what you likedbest and least about 
your experience 
NaturalistIntelligence 
learn to discriminatedifferent tree leavesby sight 
describe how otherliving beings (e.g.,
humans, animals) 
benefi t from trees 
create a system forclassifying different treeleaves 
analyze the function of agiven tree in terms ofthe larger ecosystem inwhich it fi nds itself 
develop an approach forprotecting specifi c types 
of trees in yourneighborhood fromdamage or disease 
evaluate which trees inyour neighborhood aremost eco-valuable tothe surroundingenvironment 

MI Theory and Cognitive Skills 

You neednt feel a compulsion to include all of these activities in one 
unit. In fact, you may at first want to develop a thematic curriculum without 
reference to MI theory and Blooms taxonomy. Then, simply use the instructional 
model displayed in Figure 12.1 as a road map to help you stay on 
course in your efforts to address a number of intelligences and cognitive 
levels. It may become apparent, for example, after laying the MI/Bloom template 
over the curriculum, that some easily incorporated musical experiences 
are missing from the unit or that there are no opportunities for 
students to evaluate experiencessomething that can be easily remedied. 
MI theory represents a model that can enable you to move beyond heavily 
linguistic, lower-order thinking activities (e.g., worksheets) into a broad 
range of complex cognitive tasks that prepare students for life. 

For Further Study 


1. Write 1015 random words on the board (words that are at students 
level of decoding and comprehension). Give the class one minute to memorize 
them. Then cover the words and ask students to write all the words 
from memory (in any order). Provide immediate feedback. Discuss the strategies 
that students used to remember the words. Then teach them memory 
strategies using several intelligences: 
 
LinguisticString the words together in some kind of intelligible story. 
 
SpatialVisualize the story taking place. 
 
MusicalSing the story to a set tune or a tune composed on the spot. 
 
Bodily-kinesthetic/interpersonalAct out the story, emphasizing the 
body movements involved for each of the words. 
 
IntrapersonalAssociate personal experiences (and accompanying 
feelings) with each word. 
Practice these strategies using another list of words, and then have students 
write the list from memory. Discuss what was different this time, and 
have students talk about which strategies seemed most successful to them. 
After using this procedure with two or three more lists, have students use 
these memory strategies for curriculum-related material (e.g., history facts, 
spelling words, vocabulary, etc.). 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

2. Have students solve a brainteaser or other logical-mathematical problem 
involving higher-order thinking processes. Allow students 1015 minutes 
to use whatever strategies they wish. Let them know they can work 
with other people, walk around, ask for resources, and so on. Then have 
students share their particular strategies or problem-solving processes, 
writing them on the board as they are given. After everyone has had a 
chance to share, go over the list of strategies and note which intelligences 
have been tapped. Ask students: Are some strategies more successful than 
others? Are certain strategies or problem-solving processes more fun than 
others? 
Using other types of problems, repeat this activity. Keep a list of problem-
solving strategies organized by primary intelligence. Display the list so students 
can refer to it throughout the year as a resource in guiding their own 
study habits. 

3. Develop a thematic unit, or take a unit that youve already developed, 
and note which intelligences and levels of cognitive complexity are 
addressed through the activities in the unit. List additional activities that 
might enhance the intellectual breadth and cognitive depth of the unit. 
4. Create Christopherian encounters for materials in your curriculum 
that will stretch students minds, challenge existing beliefs, and bring students 
multiple intelligences to higher levels of functioning. 

13 

Other Applications 
of MI Theory 

At present, the notion of schools devoted to multiple intelligences is still in its infancy, 
and there are as many plausible recipes as there are educational chefs. I hope that 
in the next twenty years, a number of efforts will be made to craft an education that 
takes multiple intelligences seriously; should this be done, we will be in a position to 
know which of these thought and action experiments make sense and which 
prove to be impractical or ill-advised. 

Howard Gardner 

In addition to the areas covered in previous chapters, there are many other 
applications of MI theory to education. Three that deserve mention before 
ending this book include computer technology, cultural diversity, and career 
counseling. In each case, MI theory provides a context through which existing 
understandings and resources can be extended to include a broader 
perspective. This wider view, in turn, can allow educators to develop educational 
materials and strategies that meet the needs of a more diverse student 
population. 

173 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

Computer Technology 

Our first inclination may be to associate computers with logical-mathematical 
intelligence. This connection arises in large part because of the stereotypical 
images of computer nerds working on spreadsheets or toiling over 
highly abstract computer programming languages. Computers themselves, 
however, are intelligence-neutral mechanisms. What activate computers 
are the software programs used to run them. And these software programs 
can be designed to interface with any or all of the eight intelligences. Word 
processing software, for example, calls forth from its users a certain level of 
linguistic intelligence, whereas draw-and-paint software more often requires 
spatial intelligence. The list of program types in Figure 13.1 suggests the 
broad range of software available to activate the multiple intelligences; 
examples of specific products are provided in parentheses. 

You can use MI theory as a basis for selecting and making available software 
for use in the classroom or in specially designated computer labs in the 
school. Perhaps the most exciting technology application involving multiple 
intelligences is emerging in the area of multimedia learning projects. Using 
multimedia software, a project incorporating text (linguistic), illustrations 
(spatial), sound (musical or linguistic), and video (bodily-kinesthetic and 
other intelligences) can be developed. For example, a student could create a 
learning project on horticulture. The program might begin with a written 
text describing local flowers (linguistic) accompanied by statistical charts 
listing the planting requirements of specific flowers (logical-mathematical). 
By clicking the mouse on specific nouns in the textthe word rose perhaps
an illustration of a rose might appear (spatial) along with a song 
mentioning the rosefor instance, The Rose sung by Bette Midler (musical). 
Clicking on specific verbsfor example, to plantmight activate a 
video presentation of the student planting a flower (bodily-kinesthetic). 

The process of putting together such a project requires a great deal of 
intrapersonal intelligence. If such a project is cooperative in nature (a class 
gardening project perhaps), then interpersonal intelligence is called into 
play as well. The completed CDs or DVDs themselves become valuable 
documents of a students learning progress. They can serve as electronic 
portfolios that can easily be passed from one teacher to the next as part of 
an authentic assessment of the students accomplishments during the year 
(see McKenzie, 2005). 


Other Applications of MI Theory 

Software and Web 2.0 Features that Activate the Multiple Intelligences 


Linguistic Intelligence 

 Word processing programs (Microsoft Word) 
 Typing tutors (Mavis Beacon Teaches Typing!) 
 Desktop publishing programs (Adobe Pagemaker) 
 Electronic references (Wikipedia) 
 Interactive storybooks (The Cat in the Hat) 
 Word games (Textris) 
 Foreign language instruction and translation 
software (Power Translator) 
 Web site creation software (Front Page) 
 Blog authoring (Typepad) 
 Dictation software (Kurzweil 3000) 
Logical-Mathematical Intelligence 

 Math skills tutorials (Intelligent Tutor) 
 Computer programming tutors (LOGO) 
 Logic games (Where in the World Is Carmen 
Sandiego?) 
 Science programs (I Love Science) 
 Critical thinking programs (Building Thinking Skills) 
 Database management (Microsoft Access) 
 Financial management software (Quicken Deluxe) 
 Science reference guides (Encyclopedia of 
Science) 
 Spreadsheets (Mesa) 
Spatial Intelligence 

 Animation programs (Toon Booms Flip Boom) 
 Draw-and-paint (Corel Paint Shop Pro) 
 Electronic chess games (Hiarcs) 
 Spatial problem-solving games (Tetris) 
 Electronic puzzle kits (B Puzzle) 
 Clip-art programs (Art Explosion 800000) 
 Geometry programs (Geometers Sketchpad) 
 Geography programs (Google Earth) 
 Home and landscape design software (Better 
Homes and Gardens Home Designer Suite) 
 Maps and atlases (Google Maps) 
 Computer-aided design programs (TurboCAD) 
 Video-editing software (Power Director) 
Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence 

 Hands-on construction kits that interface with 
computers (Lego Mindstorms NXT) 
 Motion-simulation games (Flight Simulator X) 
 Virtual-reality system software (Unigine) 
 Tools that plug into computers (Model ChemLab) 
 Human anatomy and health reference guides 
(3D Body Adventure) 
 Physical fitness software (Crosstrainer) 
 Sports software (cSwing) 
Musical Intelligence 

 Music literature tutors (The History of Music 
Online Tutor) 
 Voice synthesizer (Pb Vocoder) 
 Composition software (Finale Songwriter) 
 Tone recognition and melody memory enhancers 
(Music Memory) 
 Musical instrument digital interfaces (Sonar Home 
Studio) 
 Music instrument instruction software (eMedia 
Essential Rock Guitar) 
 Musical notation programs (Pizzicato) 
Interpersonal Intelligence 

 E-mail software (Outlook Express) 
 Online forums (MySpace) 
 Simulation games (SimCity) 
 Genealogy programs (Legacy) 
 Electronic board games (Clue Classic) 
Intrapersonal Intelligence 

 Personal choice software (Oregon Trail) 
 Career counseling software (Cambridge Career 
Counseling System) 
 Self-understanding software (Emotional IQ Test) 
 Fantasy role-play software (Second Life) 
 Personal digital assistant (PDA) software 
(Handweek) 
 Any self-paced software program 
Naturalist Intelligence 

 Naturalist reference guides (National Geographic) 
 Nature simulation programs (Amazon Trail) 
 Animal games software (AnimaX) 
 Ecology awareness programs (EcoBeaker) 
 Gardening programs (3-D Garden Composer) 

Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

Similarly, the use of the Internet provides opportunities for the exploration 
and expansion of a students multiple intelligences. One might, for 
example, bookmark Web pages related to each of the intelligences, including 
math and science sites (logical-mathematical intelligence), sites for downloading 
music (musical intelligence) or for downloading images (spatial 
intelligence), sites that specialize in nature (naturalist intelligence), sites 
that provide chat rooms and other chances for interaction (interpersonal 
intelligence), and sites that offer opportunities for self-development (intrapersonal 
intelligence). 

Cultural Diversity 

Over the past two decades, the United States has seen tremendous demographic 
changes that have created a student population more racially, ethnically, 
and culturally diverse than ever before. Such diversity presents a great 
challenge for educators in designing curriculums that are not only content-
sensitive to cultural differences (e.g., exposing students to the beliefs, background, 
and foundations of individual cultures) but also process-sensitive 
(e.g., helping students understand the many ways of knowing that different 
cultures possess). MI theory provides a model that is culturally sensitive to 
such differences. As such, it provides educators with a valuable tool to help 
celebrate the ways in which different cultures think. 

According to MI theory, an intelligence must be valued by a culture in 
order to be considered a true intelligence. This criterium automatically disqualifies 
many of the tasks that have traditionally been associated with intelligence 
testing in the schools. For example, the ability to repeat random 
digits backward and forward is a task found on some intelligence tests, even 
though this feat is not particularly valued by any culture. Nowhere in the 
world do a cultures elders pass on random digits to the next generation. 
What cultures do pass on to their younger members are stories, myths, great 
art and music, scientific discoveries, social mores, political institutions, and 
number systems, among many other end-states of accomplishment. 

All cultures in the world possess and make use of the eight intelligences 
in MI theory; however, the ways in which they do so, and the manner in which 
individual intelligences are valued, vary considerably. A person growing up 


Other Applications of MI Theory 

in the Puluwat culture in the South Sea Islands, for example, would discover 
that the spatial and naturalist intelligences are highly prized because of their 
use in navigating the seas (Gladwin, 1970). Puluwat peoples live on several 
hundred islands, and the ability to move easily from one island to another 
has a high cultural value. They train their children from a very early age to 
recognize the constellations, the various bumps (islands) on the horizon, 
and the different textures on the surface of the water that point to significant 
geographical information. The chief navigators in that society have more 
prestige than even the political leaders. 

In some cultures, musical intelligence is a capacity that is considered 
universal among all members rather than the province of an elite group of 
performers. Children growing up among the Anang in Nigeria are expected 
to learn hundreds of dances and songs by the time they are 5 years old. In 
Hungary, because of the pioneering influence of the composer Zoltn Kodly 
on education, students are exposed to music every day and are expected to 
learn to read musical notation. There are also cultures that place a greater 
emphasis upon connectedness between peoples (interpersonal intelligence) 
than upon the individual going his own way (intrapersonal intelligence [Gard - 
ner, 1993a]). 

It is important to repeat, however, that every culture has and uses all 
eight intelligences. Educators would be making a great mistake if they began 
to refer to specific racial, ethnic, or cultural groups only in terms of one 
intelligence. The history of intelligence testing is filled with such bigotry and 
narrow-mindedness (see, for example, Gould, 1981). Indiscriminate use of 
MI theory in discussions of cultural differences might well revive old racist 
stereotypes (e.g., blacks are musical, Asians are logical). For a list of 
some of the ways in which cultural groups value each of the eight intelligences, 
see Figure 1.1 in Chapter 1. 

Such a broad perspective on culture can provide a context for exploring 
in a school setting the tremendous diversity in the ways different cultures 
express themselves through each of the eight intelligences. You might want 
to periodically hold multicultural/multiple intelligence fairs in your school 
to celebrate such differences. You could develop curriculums that integrate 
MI theory into multicultural units. And you can also introduce students to 
MI theory through great figures in each culture who have achieved high 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

end-state performances in each of the intelligences (see Figure 13.2 for 
some examples). 

13.2 
Prominent Individuals from Minority Cultures 
Intelligence African 
American 
Asian and 
Polynesian 
American 
Hispanic 
American 
Native 
American 
Linguistic Toni Morrison Amy Tan Isabel Allende Vine Deloria Jr. 
Logical-
Mathematical 
Benjamin Banneker Yuan Lee Luis Alvarez Robert Whitman 
Spatial Elizabeth Catlett Mora I. M. Pei Frida Kahlo Oscar Howe 
Bodily-
Kinesthetic 
Jackie Joyner-Kersee Kristi Yamaguchi Juan Marichal Jim Thorpe 
Musical Mahalia Jackson Midori Linda Ronstadt Buffy Saint Marie 
Interpersonal Martin Luther King Jr. Daniel K. Inouye Xavier L. Suarez Russell Means 
Intrapersonal Malcolm X S. I. Hayakawa Cesar Chavez Black Elk 
Naturalist George Washington 
Carver 
Nainoa Thompson Severo Ochoa Wilfred Foster 
Denetclaw Jr. 

Career Counseling 

Because it emphasizes the broad range of ways in which adults pursue their 
work in life, MI theory provides an appropriate vehicle for helping youngsters 
begin to develop vocational aspirations. If students are exposed from 
a very early age to a wide variety of adults demonstrating real-life skills in 
all eight intelligences, they will have a firm basis upon which to launch a 
career once they leave school. In the early grades, students would benefit 
by having adults come into class to talk about their lifes work and by going 
to visit adults at their places of work. It is important that educators not 
attempt to match childrens proclivities to specific careers too early in their 
development. By seeing the spectrum of occupations related to each of the 


Other Applications of MI Theory 

eight intelligences through these kinds of visits and field trips, children can 
begin making their own decisions about what feels right and what doesnt 
fit vocationally. Children also benefit from periodic discussions about what 
theyd like to be when they grow up. Plan on using the MI vocabulary in 
these discussions to help frame some of their aspirations. 

At the middle and secondary school levels, students can participate in 
an ongoing process of self-assessment to determine what they are temperamentally 
and cognitively suited for in the job marketplace (the MI self-
assessment tools may be useful in the process). Here is a list of occupations 
categorized by primary intelligence: 

 
LinguisticLibrarian, archivist, curator, speech pathologist, writer, 
radio or TV announcer, journalist, legal assistant, lawyer, secretary, 
typist, proofreader, English teacher 
 
Logical-mathematicalAuditor, accountant, purchasing agent, underwriter, 
mathematician, scientist, statistician, actuary, computer analyst, 
economist, technician, bookkeeper, math or science teacher 
 
SpatialEngineer, surveyor, architect, urban planner, graphic artist, 
interior decorator, photographer, art teacher, inventor, cartographer, 
pilot, fine artist, sculptor 
 
Bodily-kinestheticPhysical therapist, recreational worker, dancer, 
actor, mechanic, carpenter, craftsperson, physical education teacher, 
factory worker, choreographer, professional athlete, jeweler 
 
MusicalDisc jockey, musician, instrument maker, piano tuner, music 
therapist, instrument salesperson, songwriter, studio engineer, choral 
director, conductor, singer, music teacher, musical copyist 
 
InterpersonalAdministrator, manager, school principal, personnel 
worker, arbitrator, sociologist, anthropologist, counselor, psychologist, 
nurse, public relations person, salesperson, travel agent, social 
director 
 
IntrapersonalPsychologist, clergyman, psychology teacher, therapist, 
counselor, theologian, entrepreneur 
 
NaturalistForest ranger, zoologist, naturalist, marine biologist, veterinarian, 
beekeeper, farmer, nature guide, ecologist, horticulturist, vintner, 
entomologist, tree surgeon 

Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

Of course, virtually every job consists of a variety of responsibilities 
touching on several intelligences. For example, school administrators must 
possess interpersonal intelligence to facilitate their work with teachers, 
parents, students, and the community. But they must also have logical-
mathematical capabilities to plan budgets and schedules and linguistic skills 
to write proposals and grants or to communicate effectively with others. 
They must also have good intrapersonal intelligence if they are to have 
enough confidence in themselves to stick by their decisions. When discussing 
careers with secondary students, it may be helpful to discuss the multiplicity 
of intelligences required for each job. 

For Further Study 


1. Assess your classrooms or schools software library. Note which 
specific intelligences are activated through each program. Identify intelligence 
areas that appear to have few or no software programs represented. 
Obtain catalogs of major educational software companies and list software 
programs that could be purchased to expand the range of intelligences covered 
in your school. Provide your classroom or lab with at least two or three 
software programs for each intelligence. Then label software programs by 
intelligences developed and encourage students to explore a range of programs 
during special choice times. Similarly, create a list of valued Web 
sites that feature the eight intelligences. 
2. Develop expertise in the use of multimedia software. Then use these 
resources to help students develop special projects or electronic portfolios 
for assessment purposes. 
3. Create a multicultural/multiple intelligence unit for your class. If your 
community is diverse, focus on cultures represented by students in your 
classroom or school. In the unit, explore how different cultures express 
themselves through the eight intelligences, examining oral and written traditions, 
number systems or sciences, music, art, dance, sports, political and 
social systems, religious and mythic traditions, and taxonomies for classifying 
nature. 
4. Develop a vocational curriculum unit appropriate for your classroom 
(planning field trips and parent visits at the elementary level, 

Other Applications of MI Theory 

self- assessments and specific study of careers at the middle school and 
high school levels). 

5. What are some educational applications of MI theory that have not 
been mentioned in this book? How might these applications best be developed? 
Select one unexplored area that has particular interest for you and 
design a unique expression of it in your classroom or school. 

14 

MI Theory and 
Existential Intelligence 

[Existential intelligence] has been valued in every known human culture. Cultures 
devise religious, mystical, or metaphysical systems for dealing with existential issues; 
and in modern times or in secular settings, aesthetic, philosophical, and scientific 
works and systems also speak to this ensemble of human needs. 

Howard Gardner 

Howard Gardner has written about the possibility of a ninth intelligencethe 
existential (Gardner, 1995, 1999)and so I would like to examine what some 
of the potential applications of this candidate intelligence might be in the 
curriculum. Gardner defines existential intelligence as a concern with ultimate 
life issues. He describes the core ability of this intelligence as the 
capacity to locate oneself with respect to the furthest reaches of the cosmos
the infinite and the infinitesimaland the related capacity to locate 
oneself with respect to such existential features of the human condition as 
the significance of life, the meaning of death, the ultimate fate of the physical 
and the psychological worlds, and such profound experiences as love of 
another person or total immersion in a work of art (Gardner, 1999, p. 60). 
Gardner explicitly states that he is not proposing here a spiritual, religious, 

182 


MI Theory and Existential Intelligence 

or moral intelligence based upon any specific truths that have been 
ad vanced by different individuals, groups, or institutions (see Gardner, 1999, 
pp. 5377, for a fuller discussion of why he has decided not to propose a 
spiritual or moral intelligence). Instead, he is suggesting that any rendering 
of the spectrum of human intelligences should probably address humanitys 
long-standing efforts to come to grips with the ultimate questions of life: 
Who are we? Whats it all about? Why is there evil? Where is humanity 
heading? Is there meaning in life? and so forth. There is room in this inclusive 
definition for explicitly religious or spiritual roles (theologians, pastors, 
rabbis, shamans, ministers, priests, yogis, lamas, imams), as well as nonreligious 
or nonspiritual roles (philosophers, writers, artists, scientists, and others 
who are asking these deeper questions as a part of their creative work). 

Gardner has considered this intelligence for inclusion into MI theory 
(at times hes quipped that he currently has 8 intelligences) because it 
appears to fit quite well with most of his criteria for an intelligence: 

 
Cultural valueVirtually all cultures have belief systems, myths, dogmas, 
rituals, institutions, or other structures that attempt to grapple 
with ultimate life issues. 
 
Developmental historyA look at the autobiographies of great philosophical, 
religious, spiritual, scientific, or artistic individuals often shows 
an increasing progression from inklings of cosmic concerns in childhood 
through apprenticeship stages to more advanced levels of understanding 
or comprehension of these issues in adulthood. 
 
Symbol systemsMost societies historically have developed different 
kinds of symbols, images, or maps with which to communicate to 
their members about existential themes (witness, for example, key 
symbols used by the worlds major religions such as the cross for 
Christianity, the star and crescent for Islam, the star of David for Judaism, 
etc.). 
 
Exceptional individuals (savants)In many parts of the world, there 
are to be found individuals who are said by the local populace to possess 
a deeper wisdom or understanding, or capacity to ask existential 
questions, while at the same time having a low IQ or lacking substantially 
in the capacities of the other intelligences (the movie figure 
Forrest Gump is perhaps the best-known representation of this phenomenon 
in popular culture). 

Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

 
Psychometric studiesCertain personality assessments purport to measure 
traits of religiosity or spirituality, although there are certain 
problems inherent in obtaining quantitative measures of experiences 
that are by definition nonquantitative 
 
Evolutionary plausibilityThere is evidence for an awareness of existential 
themes in the hunting and burying rituals of prehistoric humans 
and also in the mourning behaviors of elephants. 
 
Brain researchIndividuals who have temporal-lobe epilepsy sometimes 
show signs of hyperreligiosity, and identical twins reared 
apart show a strong link in terms of their religious attitudes, suggesting 
the possibility of heritability; however, there are problems involved 
in subjecting existential concerns to bioreductionism. 
Although the existential intelligence is not a perfect fit in terms of Gardners 
criteria (this being the reason why he has still not fully qualified it for 
entry into MI theory), there are enough points of confluence to warrant this 
intelligence being taken seriously by educators as a new intelligence on the 
block. I would like to explore some of the potential applications of existential 
intelligence to the curriculum. However, before I do so, I wish to make 
some preliminary comments. 

First, some educators may feel a certain reluctance to address the existential 
intelligence for fear of running into controversy from the community, 
abridging constitutional protections of the separation of church and state, or 
violating their own consciences or belief systems or those of their students 
with regard to these deeper life issues. However, it is important to point out 
that this intelligence does not involve promoting religion, spirituality, or any 
specific belief system. It, rather, is dedicated to examining the ways in which 
humanity has addressed existential concerns (both religious and nonreligious) 
in a diversity of ways since the beginning of recorded time. There are 
clear constitutional protections for teaching about religion in public schools 
(objectively and neutrally) and important pedagogical reasons for doing this 
regularly across the curriculum (see Nord & Haynes, 1998). 

Second, it appears to me that the potential applications of this intelligence 
to the curriculum will be more selective than they are for any of the 
other intelligences. I dont see any particular advantage in attempting to 
apply existential intelligence to every possible educational objective. Notice 


MI Theory and Existential Intelligence 

the absurdity, for example, in trying to teach multiplication, phonics, sentence 
structure, class rules, state government, or the different food groups 
through existential intelligence! I think that the existential intelligence 
even if fully endorsed by Howard Gardner as an official intelligence some-
daywill always maintain a somewhat special status within MI theory, 
somewhere on the periphery of the day-to-day workings of the model. 

Finally, I believe that attempts to assess existential intelligence in students, 
or to develop existential methods for assessing regular school topics, 
are not going to be at all productive or useful in an educational context 
because they will tend to force educators into creating criteria that are far 
too limiting and artificial to be of any pedagogical value (and are conversely 
likely only to incite controversy and confusion). I also believe that attempts 
to create existential strategies to teach curriculum in specific areas (e.g., 
having students re-create a religious ritual during a multicultural unit or telling 
them to do a closed-eyes meditation on the significance of death in a 
biology class) are likely to violate the consciences of some students and possibly 
be unconstitutional in a public school setting as well. Consequently, I 
feel that the most appropriate way to integrate existential intelligence into 
the classroom is by integrating content into the curriculum that helps students 
think about the existential dimensions of whatever they are studying 
and that assists them in considering the ways in which scientists, artists, 
politicians, writers, and others have incorporated existential concerns into 
their own work. I suggest that educators read the book Taking Religion Seriously 
Across the Curriculum (Nord & Haynes, 1998) for a solidly grounded, 
legally based, and pedagogically responsible approach to teaching about 
religious issues in the classroom. For a look at how children are natural philosophers, 
I would suggest The Philosophy of Childhood (Matthews, 1996). 

What follows are some of my own suggestions for how existential intelligence 
can intersect with different areas of the curriculum and how it can 
be integrated into the classroom in a way that does not violate the Constitution 
or the belief systems of individual students. 

Science 

Although its external logical methodologies may seem to preclude the possibility 
of entertaining existential issues, the inner core of science is very 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

much alive to issues of ultimate concern in life. One should remember that 
modern science emerged in the 17th century out of philosophy, religion, 
alchemy, and other fields that dealt with existential issues. Many of the great 
scientists of the modern era, including Newton, Boyle, and Einstein, have 
been motivated in part (sometimes in large part) by religious, spiritual, or 
cosmic concerns (Einstein, for example, rejected the indeterminacy of quantum 
physics because he did not believe that God would play dice with the 
universe). Teachers can address science existentially in the classroom by 
highlighting those areas that involve, as Gardner (1999) puts it, the furthest 
reaches of the cosmosthe infinite and the infinitesimal (p. 60)that is, 
theories about the origins of the universe, subatomic physics, and so forth. 
An excellent book that vividly demonstrates these extreme limits is Powers 
of Ten (Morrison & Morrison, 1994), which takes readers from inside the 
atom to the edges of the universe by successive powers of ten. In the biological 
sciences, teachers can similarly approach the origins of life in an 
existential way by helping students wonder about the distinctions between 
non-life-forms (rocks and minerals) and life-forms (plants and animals). 
Many current controversies in science, from human cloning to nuclear weapons 
research, raise opportunities for deep reflection upon the nature and 
destiny of humanity. In fact, wherever science is working at its own frontiers 
with unanswered questions, there is plenty of room for existential concerns 
to be brought to the fore in the curriculum. 

Mathematics 

Like science, mathematics has been entwined for thousands of years with 
existential issues. The first Western mathematician that we know about, the 
Greek thinker Pythagoras, was a mathematician and a mystic who believed 
that number patterns revealed the ultimate harmony of the cosmos. Following 
Pythagoras, Plato believed that mathematical reasoning was closer 
to ultimate reality than the unreliable data gathered by our mere human 
senses. The mystic components of Judaism, Islam, and other great religious 
traditions saw numbers and mathematical reasoning as doorways into the 
secrets of the mysteries of the universe. In the classroom, teachers can 
bring together a multicultural emphasis with mathematics to address some 
of these historical connections. There are also opportunities to touch upon 


MI Theory and Existential Intelligence 

existential themes when discussing math concepts like zero or infinity, very 
large or very small numbers, negative numbers, irrational numbers, imaginary 
numbers, and probability and topology. 

History 

It is simply not possible to discuss human history in any intelligent fashion 
without bringing in factors related to existential concerns, especially those 
involving religion. Consider U.S. history. The motivation for many settlers to 
come to North America in the 17th century was to seek freedom from religious 
oppression. Consequently, its important for history students to have 
a sense of what Puritans believed, for example, and how their own beliefs 
differed from the Church of England (and, similarly, how the Church of En gland 
came to split off from Roman Catholicism). Many if not most of the wars 
in human history have come about at least partially as a result of religious 
differences, so students need to know something about the nature of those 
religions in order to understand the causes of those conflicts. At the same 
time, students need to be familiar with trends in philosophy or other existential 
domains, in order to appreciate many world events (e.g., the impact 
of the Enlightenment on the French Revolution). Then there are events, such 
as the Holocaust, that transcend any particular point of view and cause us 
to confront the nature of evil, suffering, and death in a way that can shake 
up our own personal belief system and cause us to think in new ways about 
human existence. 

Literature 

The clearest connection in the West between literature and existential intelligence 
can be seen in the impact of the Hebrew and Christian Bibles on 
subsequent writers in history. One cant fully understand or appreciate 
many of the great books of our cultureincluding most of Shakespeares 
plays, Bunyans Pilgrims Progress, Melvilles Moby Dick, Faulkners Absolom, 
Absolom, and many morewithout seeing how biblical or religious sources 
interpenetrate them. Im willing to make the claim that virtually all great literature 
deals with issues of ultimate life concern and cannot be understood 
apart from them: from the existential crisis of Gilgamesh after the death of 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

his friend Enkidu in the several-thousand-year-old Mesopotamian classic to 
the philosophical musings of Leopold Bloom and Stephen Daedelus in James 
Joyces 20th-century masterpiece, Ulysses. In the classroom, teachers need 
to ascertain in advance whether assigned literature contains existential 
themes and then provide opportunities for students to reflect on and discuss 
these ideas in relationship to other course objectives. 

Geography 

The constantly shifting pattern on a world atlas of alliances, city-states, 
empires, confederations, and nations, from the ancient past to the current 
day, can be far better understood in a context that includes existential 
themes. To make sense of the changing map of the former Yugoslavia, for 
example, requires an understanding of the distinctions between Roman 
Catholicism, Orthodox Christianity, and Islam. Making sense of the division 
between India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh requires familiarity with differences 
between Islamic and Hindu thinking. Teachers can help students better 
comprehend how the landscape has been formed and re-formed by 
spending time discussing how differences in attitudes on issues of ultimate 
life concern can change geographical boundaries dramatically. 

The Arts 

Howard Gardner has pointed out in his definition of existential intelligence 
that total immersion in a work of art is one way in which individuals can 
experience and express themselves with respect to ultimate life concerns. A 
look at the history of music, painting, sculpture, dance, and drama reveals 
an ongoing concern with the meaning of life, death, suffering, and other existential 
issues. Seeing Michelangelos Pieta or attending a performance of 
Shakespeares Merchant of Venice can cause us to ponder upon ultimate 
questions of suffering and mercy. Listening to Beethovens Fifth Symphony 
or looking at painter Thomas Coles series The Voyage of Life can engender 
thoughts about human destiny. In the classroom, teachers can help 
students appreciate these finer dimensions of the arts and also provide the 
resources and opportunities for students to express their own existential 
concerns by creating their own works of art. 


MI Theory and Existential Intelligence 

In sum, there appear to be plenty of opportunities for the exercise 
of existential intelligence in a classroom setting. The kinds of connections 
and applications discussed above do not represent a side trip or remote 
excursion to a new intelligence. Rather, they take students more deeply 
into the material being studied, by focusing on how existential concerns 
intertwine with scientific, mathematical, historical, literary, artistic, and 
other fields of study and by emphasizing how questions of ultimate concern 
in life are integral to a fuller understanding of human culture. 

For Further Study 


1. Dialogue with members of your learning community (parents, teachers, 
administrators, students, board members) about bringing more of the 
existential intelligence into your schools curriculum. Freely air all points of 
view, and then develop a constitutionally sound framework that provides 
opportunities to teach about religious issues, raise philosophical themes, 
and discuss other existential concerns as they relate to various parts of the 
curriculum. 
2. Research the existential dimensions of an academic discipline, such 
as science, math, history, literature, social studies, economics, psychology, 
sociology, or anthropology, and discuss how they can be more fully incorporated 
into the regular core curriculum. 

15 

MI Theory and Its Critics 


Gardners theory provides a much needed corrective to the shortcomings of 
traditional psychometric approaches. Instead of probing the bases of bubble-sheet 
results, Gardner sought to illuminate the mental abilities underlying the actual range 
of human accomplishment that are found across cultures. 

Mindy Kornhaber 

Along with the expanding popularity of multiple intelligences, there has 
been a growing body of writing critical of the theory. In fact, one of the criticisms 
lodged against MI theory is that there has not been enough acknowledgment 
of the critical literature on the part of MI advocates. Willingham 
(2004), for example, observes: Textbooks [on MI theory] for teachers in 
training generally offer extensive coverage of the theory, with little or no 
criticism (p. 24). Traub (1998) writes: Few of the teachers and administrators 
I talked to were familiar with the critiques of multiple intelligence theory; 
what they knew was that the theory worked for them. They talked about 
it almost euphorically (p. 22). In this chapter, Id like to review some of the 
major criticisms of MI, and attempt to clear up what I believe are some key 
misconceptions about the theory. 

190 


MI Theory and Its Critics 

Criticism #1: MI Theory Lacks Empirical Support 

Most of those making this complaint about MI theory come from the psychometric, 
or testing, community. Gottfredson (2004), for example, argues that 
the literature on intelligence testing offers virtually no support for the idea 
of eight autonomous intelligences but overwhelming support for the concept 
of an overarching single intelligence, frequently attributed to Spearman 
(1927) and often referred to as Spearmans g or simply the g factor. (See 
also Brody, 2006.) Gottfredson (2004) writes: 

The g factor was discovered by the first mental testers, who found that people 
who scored well on one type of mental test tended to score well on all of them. 
Regardless of their contents (words, numbers, pictures, shapes), how they are 
administered (individually or in groups; orally, in writing, or pantomimed), or 
what theyre intended to measure (vocabulary, mathematical reasoning, spatial 
ability), all mental tests measure mostly the same thing. This common factor, 
g, can be distilled from scores on any broad set of cognitive tests, and it takes 
the same form among individuals of every age, race, sex, and nation yet studied. 
In other words, the g factor exists independently of schooling, paper-andpencil 
tests, and culture. (p. 35) 

Visser, Ashton, and Vernon (2006) actually put together a battery of 16 
tests ostensibly covering the eight intelligences (two tests for each intelligence) 
and discovered the presence of g running through most of the tests. 
These researchers argued that what Gardner calls intelligences are actually 
capacities that are secondary or even tertiary to the g factor. In other 
words, they exist but are subservient to g. J. B. Carroll (1993), who created 
his own hierarchy of human cognitive abilities, with g at the top, compares 
linguistic intelligence to fluid intelligence and musical intelligence to 
auditory perception (a mistake on his part, because the multiple intelligences 
are not dependent upon the senses), while finding no place at all for 
bodily-kinesthetic intelligence. 

Response to Criticism #1 

MI theory agrees that the g factor exists. What it disputes, however, is 
that g is superior to other forms of human cognition. In MI theory, g has its 
place (primarily in logical-mathematical intelligence) as an equal alongside 
of the other seven intelligences. It appears that what is most at stake here is 
a matter of semantics. Most critics in the psychometric community agree 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

that the intelligences in Gardners model exist and are supported by testing. 
What they disagree about is whether or not they should be called intelligences. 
They want to reserve the word intelligence for the g factor, while 
regarding the other seven intelligences as talents, abilities, capacities, or 
faculties. Gardner (2003) has written that he intended to be provocative in 
referring to multiple intelligences rather than multiple talents. He wanted 
to challenge the sacrosanct nature of intelligence as a singular phenomenon 
and get people to think more deeply about what it means to be intelligent. 
The fact that he has stirred up so much controversy from the 
psychometric community suggests that he has accomplished his goal. The 
reality is that MI theory is supported empirically from a number of sources. 
In Frames of Mind (1993a), Gardner established eight criteria that needed to 
be met in order for an intelligence to appear in his theory (see Chapter 1). 
Each of these eight criteria provides a range of empirical data, from studies 
of brain-damaged individuals and savant populations, to evidence 
from prehistoric humanity and other species, to biographical studies of 
human development and research on human cultures. As Gardner (2004) 
notes, nothing substantial has emerged in the past 25 years to seriously 
challenge his theory. Posner (2004), for example, observes that recent neuroimaging 
research supports Gardners idea of separate areas of the brain 
being related to different intelligences. Ironically, the fact that the psychometric 
community has stayed within the narrow confines of numbers and 
standardized testing actually limits its ability to give broad empirical support 
to the notion of a pure g-factor intelligence (Gottfredsons argument 
notwithstanding, g appears to measure school-like thinking; see Gardner, 
2006b). On the other hand, MIs multiple sources of empirical data considerably 
expand its validity as a theoretical construct. 

Criticism #2: No Solid Research Support for MI 
Exists in the Classroom 

This criticism parallels the first one in suggesting that MI has no empirical 
support (or, to put it in a more contemporary context, MI is not research-
based). Here we are concerned, however, not with pure theory but, rather, 
with its practical applications in schools. Collins (1998), for example, writes 
that evidence for the specifics of Gardners theory is weak, and there is no 


MI Theory and Its Critics 

firm research showing that its practical applications have been effective 

(p. 95). Willingham (2004) writes: 
. . . hard data are scarce. The most comprehensive study was a three-year 
examination of 41 schools that claim to use multiple intelligences. It was conducted 
by Mindy Kornhaber, a longtime Gardner collaborator. The results, 
unfortunately, are difficult to interpret. They reported that standardized test 
scores increased in 78 percent of the schools, but they failed to indicate 
whether the increase in each school was statistically significant. If not, then we 
would expect scores to increase in half the schools by chance. Moreover, there 
was no control group, and thus no basis for comparison with other schools in 
their districts. Furthermore, there is no way of knowing to what extent changes 
in the school are due to the implementation of ideas of multiple intelligences 
rather than, for example, the energizing thrill of adopting a new schoolwide 
program, new statewide standards, or some other unknown factor. (p. 24) 

Response to Criticism #2 

Perhaps the greatest problem with the argument that MI is not research-
based is that it is founded upon a very narrow conception of what constitutes 
authentic research. In the restrictive climate of the No Child Left 
Behind law, the idea of valid research has been severely limited to highly 
controlled studies using standardized tests and quantitative tools based on 
correlation coefficients and levels of statistical significance. One government 
definition of the gold standard in educational research is provided in a 
user-friendly guide published by the U.S. Department of Education (2003): 

For example, suppose you want to test, in a randomized controlled trial, 
whether a new math curriculum for 3rd graders is more effective than your 
schools existing math curriculum for 3rd graders. You would randomly assign 
a large number of 3rd grade students to either an intervention group, which 
uses the new curriculum, or to a control group, which uses the existing curriculum. 
You would then measure the math achievement of both groups over time. 
The difference in math achievement between the two groups would represent 
the effect of the new curriculum compared to the existing curriculum. (p. 1) 

There are many problems, however, with using this type of ostensibly 
rigorous methodology to validate the success of multiple intelligences in 
the classroom. First, multiple intelligences do not represent a specific program 
such as, for example, Direct Instruction (Marchand-Martella, Slocum, & 
Martella, 2003), which is implemented uniformly by all trained teachers. As 
can be seen from reading the previous chapters of this book, MI represents a 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

wide range of techniques, programs, attitudes, tools, strategies, and methods, 
and each teacher is encouraged to develop his or her own unique 
approach to implementing them. Therefore, it is impractical to conduct controlled 
studies of the kind Willingham demands since multiple intelligences in 
one classroom could be very different from multiple intelligences in another 
classroom and because even the control classroom would probably be 
using multiple intelligence strategies to some extent. (In other words, how do 
you find a pure MI classroom and a control group that uses absolutely no 
MI to compare it with?) Second, to demand a certain level of statis tical significance 
from a study, as Willingham does, is to risk rejecting an educational 
intervention simply for missing the cut (e.g., if the level of statistical significance 
were .05, then a level of .06 would be considered insignificant). 
McCloskey and Ziliak (2008) suggest that using statistical significance as a 
quantitative analysis tool is often misguided even in the hard sciences. Third, 
to reduce the success or failure of a study to mere numbers is to reject other 
valid sources of a programs effectiveness, including individual case studies 
of childrens learning improvement, parent reports of improved attitudes 
toward school, and documentation of learning progress through projects, 
problem solving, and portfolios (see Chapter 10). The demand for quantitative 
precision in education is an unfortunate nod toward positivismthe idea 
that ultimate truth can be expressed only through numbers or similarly precise 
scientific formulations (see Comte, 1988). There are many other thinkers 
in the Western intellectual tradition who argue for the validity of qualitative 
forms of research (see, for example, Dilthey, 1989; Gadamer, 2005; and Polyani, 
1974), and it is methodologies derived from these philosophers that are 
especially appropriate to use in guiding educational research (see, for example, 
Denzin & Lincoln, 2005). 

The fact is that there are many examples of successful implementation 
of MI theory in educational programs around the world (see also Chapter 
16). In addition to the study mentioned by Willingham (Kornhaber, 
Fierros, & Veenema, 2003), which also noted increased levels of parent participation, 
deceased levels of discipline problems, and increased academic 
performance for students with learning difficulties, there have been a number 
of research projects initiated by Harvard Project Zero that have won 
accolades over the years, including Project Spectrum (Gardner, Feldman, & 
Krechevsky, 1998a, 1998b, 1998c), Practical Intelligences for School (Williams 
et al., 1996), and Arts Propel (Zessoules & Gardner, 1991), which was 


MI Theory and Its Critics 

called by Newsweek magazine one of the two best educational programs in 
the United States (the other was the graduate school of the California Institute 
of Technology [Chideya, 1991]). The American Educational Research 
Association has had a special interest group (MI-SIG) dedicated to multiple 
intelligences research since 1999, where researchers have presented hundreds 
of papers providing validation of MI in numerous edu cational contexts. 
(MI-SIG hosts an online database of over 200 doctoral dissertation 
abstracts concerned with multiple intelligences that can be accessed at the 
following URL: http://209.216.233.245/aerami/dissertation.php.) To celebrate 
the 20th anniversary of multiple intelligences theory, an entire issue of the 
pres tigious Teachers College Record at Columbia University was dedicated 
to the work of multiple intelligences researchers and theoreticians in 2004 
(Shearer, 2004). In addition, the educational literature is replete with examples 
of individual schools and teachers who have shared in different ways 
their successes in implementing MI theory (see, for example, Campbell & 
Campbell, 2000; Greenhawk, 1997; Hoerr, 2000; and Kunkel, 2007). To reject 
MI theory as not research-based simply because there are no inappropriately 
precise research studies that attempt to mimic research from the hard 
sciences is to deprive children of a wealth of positive interventions that can 
open new doors to the world of knowledge. 

Criticism #3: MI Theory Dumbs Down 
the Curriculum to Make All Students 
Mistakenly Believe They Are Smart 

Some critics have accused MI practitioners of using superficial applications 
of MI theorystrategies of which even Gardner himself would not approve. 
Willingham (2004), for example, has criticized previous editions of this very 
book for its trivial ideas (he cites two spelling strategiessinging spelling 
words and spelling with leaves and twigsas his examples of trivial applications). 
Collins (1998) criticizes strategies from another multiple intelligences 
curriculum guide (not by this author) referring to a unit concerned with 
learning about the oceans, where students build boats and role-play at being 
sea creatures. He writes of a child using bodily-kinesthetic intelligence to 
learn U.S. history: How deeply can a student comprehend a given topic by 
relying on his strongest intelligence? Using his hands, Dave may be able to 
learn about the boats of the settlers, but can a kinesthetic approach help him 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

understand central historical issues, like the reasons the Europeans came 
to America in the first place? (p. 96). Similarly, critics have suggested that 
MI theory promulgates an artificial feel-good attitude where every child 
is told that he or she is smart. Barnett, Ceci, and Williams (2006) write: 
. . . mere re labeling may not have a permanent curative effect. . . . Focusing 
on the label rather than on meaningful performances that demonstrate skill 
may lead children to become further disillusioned once the first blush 
passes. They indicate that the focus must be on displaying meaningful 
skills and competencies, not simply on feeling that one is smart (p. 101). 

Response to Criticism #3 

Willingham was wrong to take two spelling strategies out of a book containing 
over a thousand ideas and make them represent the whole of Multiple 
Intelligences in the Classroom (this, I believe, is known as a straw man 
argument and is an example of a logical fallacy). If all a teacher did to apply 
MI theory in the classroom was to use these two spelling strategies, I too 
would criticize the effort. But the intention of this book (and many others 
like it, I believe) is to show how MI theory can be used in the service of a 
wide range of practical pedagogical goals, from lower-order rote skills like 
spelling (which some teachers actually do care about!) to higher-order 
thinking strategies such as those used in the Christopherian encounters 
discussed in Chapter 12 (see also Figure 12.1 for an example of a clear differentiation 
between levels of cognitive complexity using MI theory). 

It is true that during my 22 years of training teachers in MI I have all too 
often seen teachers take the easy way outbelieving, for instance, that rapping 
math facts meant they were doing multiple intelligences. But I have 
also seen many wonderfully original ideas related to MI theory come out of 
the minds of experienced teachers over the years. Collins (1998) doubts 
whether it is possible to use bodily-kinesthetic intelligence to teach the historical 
factors that led Europeans to come to America. However, a well-
designed role-play that imaginatively puts students at Plymouth Rock on 
November 11, 1620, and has them improvise reasons why they decided to 
leave England gives the highly dramatic learner an opportunity to think this 
objective through in a highly physical way. 

It is also true that it is not enough merely to tell students that they are 
smart in eight different ways and expect them to blossom. This has to be 
followed up with solid academic effort leading to tangible improvements in 


MI Theory and Its Critics 

knowledge of history, math, science, reading, and other basic subjects. The 
argument of MI theory is that it is not enough to produce this kind of understanding 
of the disciplines through textbooks, lectures, and standardized 
tests, but that something more is required. Students need to investigate 
ideas in world history, chemistry, ecology, literature, economics, algebra, 
and other domains by involving their whole selves (and whole brains), and 
this includes using their bodies, imagination, social sensibilities, emotions, 
and naturalistic inclinations, as well as their verbal and reasoning skills. 

It is interesting to note that most of the criticisms of MI theory have 
come from academics and journalistspeople who are usually far removed 
from the classroom. Few criticisms actually come from those who have 
applied the theory in their classrooms and seen it make a difference in their 
students lives. This suggests a profound split between generalists, who can 
find lots of logical holes in MI theory, and practitioners, who are too busy 
looking for ways to motivate children and for methods to turn their lives 
around to worry about a few logical inconsistencies or insufficiencies. 

MI theory was not originally designed by Howard Gardner as an educational 
model to be applied in the classroom. He initially wanted to convince 
academic psychometricians that there was another, broader way of conceiving 
intelligence. Ironically, despite arousing controversy, he seems to have 
failed in this effort. And yet, unexpectedly, he found teachers responding 
enthusiastically to his model because it filled a need that had not been met 
by an educational establishment too concerned with standardized measures 
and lock-step textbook approaches to learning. Instead of treating children 
as colorless denizens of a bell curve, MI theory revealed the positive qualities 
of each child and provided practical ways for each child to experience 
success in the classroom. Thus, the most authentic refutation of the critics 
of MI can be found in the children themselves. Whenever a light goes on in 
a childs mind in a well-designed MI classroom, the argument supporting MI 
theory becomes that much stronger and clearer. 

For Further Study 


1. Read some of the articles critical of multiple intelligences cited in this 
chapter (e.g., Barnett et al., 2006; Brody, 2006; Collins, 1998; Gottfredson, 
2004; Traub, 1998; Visser et al., 2006; Waterhouse, 2006; Willingham, 2004). 

Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

Which aspects of their criticism do you agree with? Which aspects do you 
disagree with? Does your attitude toward MI theory change as a result of 
reading this critical literature? If so, how? 

2. Howard Gardner has provided a number of responses to criticisms of 
MI theory, including to some of the above-mentioned authors (Gardner, 
2006a, 2006b, 2006c; Gardner & Moran, 2006). Read the original critics and 
then some of his responses to them, and evaluate the success or failure of 
his defense of MI theory. 
3. In other writing (Armstrong, 2006), I have suggested that todays educational 
climate is characterized by an overemphasis on academic performance 
as measured by standardized testing and an underemphasis on the 
education of the whole child. To what extent has this restrictive atmosphere 
given rise to the criticisms noted above? 
4. Using some of the materials discussed above, organize a debate on MI 
theory, with one individual or team taking a pro-MI stance and the other 
individual or team taking an anti-MI stance. Afterward, discuss who did the 
most effective job of defending their position. 
5. Interview colleagues and other school personnel about their attitudes 
toward MI theory and whether they have changed their opinion about it 
over the past 10 years. If they have a different attitude about it now than 
previously, ask them to share the reasons for their change in opinion. 

16 

MI Theory Around the Globe 


I have had the opportunity . . . to travel to many other nations. It has been fascinating 
to discover the ways in which [MI] theory has been interpreted and the activities that 
it has catalyzed. 

Howard Gardner 

One of the most exciting developments of the theory of multiple intelligences 
has been its international impact. MI theory is now a part of the 
educational scene to one degree or another in most of the nations of the 
world. In some cases, its impact has been at the governmental level, with MI 
incorporated into the national education initiatives of some countries. In 
other cases, its impact has been more local, with individual schools and 
teachers taking the theory and applying it to the unique requirements of 
their own culture. In this chapter, well look at several ways in which MI 
theory has been applied in cultures around the world. 

MI Theory at the Policymaking Level 

There have been a number of cases in which MI theory has been incorporated 
at the highest levels of a nations or international bodys policymaking 

199 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

institutions. According to Gardner (2006a), . . . I have been amazed to learn 
of jurisdictions in which the terminology of MI has been incorporated into 
white papers, recommendations by ministries, and even legislation. . . . I 
have heard from reliable sources that MI approaches are part of the policy 
landscape in such diverse lands as Australia, Bangladesh, Canada, China, 
Denmark, Ireland and the Netherlands (p. 248). In Bangladesh, for example, 
with support from UNICEF, the government initiated its Intensive District 
Approach for All Learners project in the 1990s (Chanda, 2001). As part of this 
effort, tens of thousands of teachers were trained in MI theory through the 
initiative Multiple Ways of Teaching and Learning (Ellison & Rothenberger, 
1999). Indias National Curriculum Framework for School Education requires 
teachers to be familiar with the concepts of multiple intelligences (Sarangapani, 
2000). In Geneva, Switzerland, the prestigious International Baccalaureate 
(IB) Organization, which offers programs to over 600,000 students in 128 
countries, has recently acknowledged Gardners role in influencing its own 
approach to learning: Howard Gardner has been influential in changing 
views about learning and the ways we learn. Access and equity within the IB 
today is much wider than it was previously. It is acknowledged that all students 
have strengths and weaknesses which must be supported in a strategic 
way for them to meet their potential (Reed, 2007). 

MI Theory at the Academic Level 

Multiple intelligences theory has been the subject of increasing academic 
research in universities around the world. I have heard personally by e-mail 
from scores of individuals who are pursuing their masters theses and doctoral 
dissertations on MI theory at institutions such as Middle East Technical 
University in Ankara, Turkey; the University of Jordan in Amman, Jordan; 
Mulawaram University in Samarinda, Indonesia; and Ferhat Abbes University 
in Setif, Algeria. A growing number of internationally oriented academic 
studies on MI theory have been published in peer-reviewed journals. One 
topic that has been given much attention is the estimation of ones multiple 
intelligences profile compared to estimations of MI profiles in ones parents, 
children, and/or partner. Journal articles dedicated to this subject have 
covered populations from Namibia, Zimbabwe, Zambia, and South Africa 


MI Theory Around the Globe 

(Furnham & Akanda, 2004), Malaysia (Swami, Furnham, & Kannan, 2006), 
China (Furnham & Wu, 2008), and Japan (Furnham & Fukumoto, 2008). 
Other international studies have looked at MI and information literacy education 
in Singapore (Mohktar, Majid, & Fu, 2007), musical aptitude and multiple 
intelligences among Chinese gifted students in Hong Kong (Chan, 2007), 
and improved academic performance in Kuwaiti middle school reading programs 
using multiple intelligences (Al-Bahan, 2006). 

MI Theory at the Individual School Level 

Thousands of schools around the world have applied MI theory to their curricula 
in different ways. A teacher in Argentina, for example, writes about 
how she taught English as a second language to a group of 1st grade students. 
Developing a unit on helpers (postman, firefighter, doctor, nurse), 
students visited service-oriented people around town, kept journals, wrote 
letters, built a model of the community, created a mural, made musical 
instruments, and reflected orally on their learning while looking in a mirror 
(Ribot, 2004). In Chile, the Amancay Elementary School of La Florida in Santiago 
has put on multiple intelligences theme weeks. During the Week of the 
Arts, they have a day when children talk with real writers and a day when 
children paint with painters. They also have a Scientific Week that includes 
students sharing their own inventions and a Sea Month focused on the 
naturalist intelligence (Gundian & Anrquez, 1999). In the Philippines, the MI 
International High School in Quezon City puts MI theory to work in the cause 
of promoting entrepreneurship among its students. Students are challenged 
to develop real-world business plans based on ideas that emerge from MI 
lessons. A linguistic group, for example, developed Flash Range, a media 
center that creates books for teens that deal with environmental and personal 
and emotional growth issues. A musical group created a business 
called Boom Box Music, which offers musical composition and record production 
services. A group of people-smart students conceptualized their 
own family restaurant, Pastuchi, featuring a fusion of Italian and Japanese 
cuisines. The school has an annual bazaar that sells products made by the 
various businesses and then donates the profits to a charity that helps the 
poor (Manila Times, 2008). 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

MI Theory at the Community Level 

Beyond formal schooling applications, multiple intelligences theory has 
also had an impact on the popular culture in many countries around the 
world. In China, for example, the Multiple Intelligences Education Society 
promotes MI theory through seminars, magazine articles, radio programs, 
and TV interviews, all coordinated as part of an effort to reform parent education, 
vocational education, and the formal examination process (Chen, 
Moran, & Gardner, in press). In Denmark, the industrial manufacturer Danfoss 
has created a theme park, Danfoss Universe, that incorporates many 
strategies and ideas from multiple intelligences. They have essentially created 
an interactive MI museum, where children and adults participate in 
over 50 activities designed to both test their multiple intelligences and also 
raise awareness concerning the many different ways of being smart. Activities 
include turning physical movements into electronic art, negotiating 
an obstacle course, cooperating with others to move a robot, playing a 
theremin (an electronic musical instrument played without touching it), 
unscrambling melodies, being a music producer, putting together tangrams, 
solving word and visual puzzles, building structures, making predictions 
about natural phenomena, speaking a foreign language, transmitting images 
just by thinking, and building a bridge across a lake to an island. Danfoss 
Universe also contains exhibits for experiencing the primal force of a volcano, 
a geyser, strong hot winds, and other natural phenomena. As a final 
example, in the Chinese Special Administrative Region of Macau, multiple 
intelligences theory appeared in a very unlikely place: the grocery store. 
Gardner (2006a) writes: In Macau I received a tour of the island from 
Mr. U. The next morning he picked me up for my presentation at the Education 
Ministry. Look what my wife picked up at the grocery store, he said. 
He showed me a multicolored flyer that depicted each of the intelligences 
on a separate leaf. The flyer, replete with illustrations, charts, and figures, 
was an advertisement for Frisogrow processed milk. . . . The consumer was 
informed, If you drink our milk, you will develop each of the different intelligences. 
Never before had it occurred to me that the MI in the theory might 
stand for MIlk! (p. 245). 


MI Theory Around the Globe 

What Happens When MI Theory 
Connects with Another Culture 

Its fascinating to study the interaction of MI theory with different cultures 
around the world. One must keep in mind that MI theory itself is a cultural 
product emanating from contemporary U.S. culture. As such, it embodies 
many values and ideals that are considered important in the United States, 
including pluralism, pragmatism, and egalitarianism. What happens when 
these U.S. values contact the values of another culture is quite instructive. 
Often it appears that MI theory gains significantly from its contact with 
another culture. In Norway, for example, education and the outdoors are 
given much greater emphasis than they are in the United States. Norwegian 
education incorporates into its curriculum an important institution called 
an utskole, or outdoor school. It is part of a larger framework in Norwegian 
culture referred to as friluftsliv, which can be roughly translated as outdoor 
nature life and which encompasses a wide range of physical activities and 
attitudes regarding nature such as hiking, skiing, ecological awareness, and 
maritime activities. As part of the utskole, most elementary schools in Norway 
have a structure called a gapahuk, which is often just a hut or lean-to 
structure set apart from the regular school building and situated in a natural 
setting. Students engage in a variety of curriculum-related activities in 
the gapahuk. In 2005, I had the opportunity to visit a gapahuk while speaking 
in Norway and saw students learning about Norwegian history by making 
ancient cooking implements from natural sources such as branches and 
twigs. Every student in elementary school in Norway has the opportunity to 
spend one day a week outdoors in the gapahuk. There are also kindergartens 
in Norway where children spend all day, every day, engaged in an 
outdoor setting. This contrasts radically with the United States, where outdoor 
activities, if they occur at all, are usually short and infrequent. The 
Norwegian experience offers to MI theory a whole new attitude toward the 
naturalist intelligence (and to bodily-kinesthetic intelligence as well), suggesting 
that these neglected intelligences be honored in a serious way by 
delegating a good part of the school week to their robust development in an 
outdoor setting. 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

At other times, the theory of multiple intelligences represents a challenge 
to certain long-established values of a culture. In South Korea, for 
example, traditional linguistic and logical-mathematical learning is valued 
so highly that it is often difficult to change parent attitudes. Two South 
Korean university professors, who sought to replicate Harvard Project 
Zeros Project Spectrum for young children there, noted the following: In 
Korea, parents believe that high academic achievement means excellent 
achievement in linguistic and mathematics. Children who have a weakness 
in linguistic and mathematics consider themselves as helpless at school 
(Jung & Kim, 2005, p. 585). These beliefs have deep cultural origins, according 
to Jung and Kim: South Korea is a competitive-oriented society with an 
examination-oriented culture that continues to influence education today. 
The state examination is considered to be most difficult; one should prepare 
for it from birth. By tradition, pencils and cotton threads are displayed 
at a babys first birthday, which is the grandest celebration. Family members 
encourage the baby to grab a pencil, which means the baby will study 
hard and pass the state examination (pp. 591592). The Project Spectrum 
assessment tools (described in Chapter 10) were implemented successfully 
in this South Korean setting and were viewed as a way to help undo some 
of these deeply entrenched ideas about learning and human development. 
As Jung and Kim wrote: The Project Spectrum approach based on MI theory 
facilitates a child-oriented education by assuming equality and independence 
among multiple intelligences. . . . Under such an assessment system, 
children/students will be able to avoid the negative self image too often 
experienced in the Korean education system and develop into successful 
and active learners (p. 591). 

However, even in cultures that have long histories of formal examinations, 
there are opportunities to witness the goodness of fit between MI theory 
and many other aspects of those cultures. In Japan, for example, where 
students attend cram schools in an attempt to improve their chances of 
passing university entrance examinations, there are many different aspects 
of ancient Japanese culture that are harmonious with MI theory. The ancient 
temple school of Japan, referred to as terakoya, taught traditional literacy 
and numeracy skills to Japanese citizens from all walks of life (Chen et al., in 
press). But Japanese culture also provided many other entry points into 
the multiple intelligences through calligraphy, haiku, the Kabuki theater, the 


MI Theory Around the Globe 

traditional tea ceremony, and a wide range of martial arts traditions including 
sumo wrestling, judo, and jujutsu. In my own work as an MI consultant, I have 
been involved in a project to integrate multiple intelligence activities into a 
group of cram schools in Tokyo, to help combat social problems of youth 
including school refusal, bullying, and social isolation. 

The remarkable thing about multiple intelligences internationally is that 
it seems to be finding a place for itself in widely diverse cultural contexts, 
even in cultures that have values that seem to conflict radically with the 
pluralistic and egalitarian underpinnings of MI theory. The theory of multiple 
intelligences has found its way into the schools and university systems of 
Iran and Saudi Arabia; Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom has been translated 
into Farsi, Arabic, and 17 other languages. MI has been taught in the 
madrassas (or holy Islamic schools) of Pakistan (Schmidle, 2007); and 
according to Gardner, his book Frames of Mind was one of only two books in 
English found in a library in North Korea (the other book was Michael 
Moores Stupid White Men [Gardner, 2006a]). I think a big reason for the 
widespread success of MI theory internationally has been its friendliness to 
cultural diversity (see Chapter 13). At the core of the model there is the 
requirement that each intelligence must be culturally valued in order to find 
a place for itself on Gardners list of intelligences. Implicit in this requirement 
is the observation that each of the elements of the multiple intelligences 
music, words, logic, pictures, social interaction, physical expression, inner 
reflection, and nature appreciationcan be found in all cultures. Thus, each 
country around the world has the opportunity to see its own indigenous 
traditions honored and celebrated through MI theory. 

For Further Study 


1. Choose an indigenous culture from any country in the world (including 
from within the United States) and describe in detail how each of the 
eight intelligences is celebrated and honored. 
2. Make contact with a school using MI theory in another country 
(including any of those listed above or those that might be found on the 
Internet). Initiate a cultural exchange of ideas regarding specific applications 
of multiple intelligences. 

Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

3. Integrate an MI-oriented practice used in another culture into your 
own school or classroom (e.g., the utskole or outdoor school from Norway 
for the naturalist intelligence, judo from Japan for the bodily-kinesthetic 
intelligence, etc.). Evaluate its effectiveness. 
4. To what extent does MI theory reflect the values of late-20th- and 
early-21st-century U.S. culture? Examine the ways in which those values 
either connect or collide with the values of another culture. 

Appendix A 

Related MI Resources 


Books 

Armstrong, T. (1999). 7 kinds of smart: Discovering and identifying your multiple 
intelligencesRevised and updated with information on two new kinds 
of smart. New York: Plume. 

Armstrong, T. (2000). In their own way: Discovering and encouraging your 
childs multiple intelligences. New York: Tarcher/Putnam. 

Armstrong, T. (2003). The multiple intelligences of reading and writing: Making 
the words come alive. Alexandria, VA: ASCD. 

Armstrong, T. (2003). Youre smarter than you think: A kids guide to multiple 
intelligences. Minneapolis, MN: Free Spirit Publishing. 

Baum, S., Viens, J., & Slatin, B. (2005). Multiple intelligences in the elementary 
classroom: A teachers toolkit. New York: Teachers College Press. 

Borenson, H. (2007). The Hands-On Equations home packet. Allentown, PA: 
Borenson and Associates Inc. 

Bower, B., Lobdell, J., & Swensen, L. (1994). History alive! Engaging all learners 
in the diverse classroom. Menlo Park, CA: Addison-Wesley. 

Campbell, B. (1994). The multiple intelligences handbook. Tucson, AZ: Zephyr 
Press. 

207 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

Campbell, B., & Campbell, L. (2000). Multiple intelligences and student 
achieve ment: Success stories from six schools. Alexandria, VA: ASCD. 

Campbell, L., Campbell, B., & Dickinson, D. (2003). Teaching and learning 
through multiple intelligences (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Allyn & 
Bacon. 

Carreiro, P. (1998). Tales of thinking: Multiple intelligences in the classroom. 
Portland, ME: Stenhouse Publications. 

Faculty of the New City School. (1994). Celebrating multiple intelligences. 
St. Louis, MO: Author. 

Faculty of the New City School. (1996). Succeeding with multiple intelligences: 
Teaching through the personal intelligences. St. Louis, MO: Author. (Order 
from New City School, 5209 Waterman Ave., St. Louis, MO, 63108.) 

Fogarty, R., & Bellanca, J. (1995). Multiple intelligences: A collection. Thousand 
Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. 

Fogarty, R., & Stoehr, J. (1995). Integrating the curriculum with multiple intelligences. 
Palatine, IL: Skylight Publications. 

Gardner, H. (1991). To open minds. New York: Basic Books. 

Gardner, H. (1993). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences10th 
anniversary edition. New York: Basic Books. 

Gardner, H. (1994). Creating minds: An anatomy of creativity seen through the 
lives of Freud, Einstein, Picasso, Stravinsky, Eliot, Graham, and Gandhi. New 
York: Basic Books. 

Gardner, H. (1998). Extraordinary minds. New York: Basic Books. 

Gardner, H. (1999). The disciplined mind: What all students should understand. 
New York: Simon & Schuster. 

Gardner, H. (1999). Intelligence reframed: Multiple intelligences for the 21st 
century. New York: Basic Books. 

Gardner, H. (2006). Multiple intelligences: New horizons in theory and practice. 
New York: Basic Books. 

Gardner, H., Feldman, D. H., & Krechevsky, M. (Eds.). (1998). Project Zero 
frameworks for early childhood education, Vol. 1: Building on childrens 
strengths: The experience of Project Spectrum. New York: Teachers College 
Press. 

Gardner, H., Feldman, D. H., & Krechevsky, M. (Eds.). (1998). Project Zero 
frameworks for early childhood education, Vol. 2: Project Spectrum: Early 
learning activities. New York: Teachers College Press. 

Gardner, H., Feldman, D. H., & Krechevsky, M. (Eds.). (1998). Project Zero 
frameworks for early childhood education, Vol. 3: Project Spectrum: Preschool 
assessment handbook. New York: Teachers College Press. 


Related MI Resources 

Haggerty, B. (1994). Nurturing intelligences. Menlo Park, CA: Addison-Wesley. 
Hirsch, R. A. (2004). Early childhood curriculum: Incorporating multiple intelligences, 
developmentally appropriate practices, and play. Upper Saddle 
River, NJ: Pearson/Allyn & Bacon. 
Hoerr, T. R. (2000). Becoming a multiple intelligences school. Alexandria, VA: 
ASCD. 
Kornhaber, M., Fierros, E., & Veenema, S. (2003). Multiple intelligences: Best 
ideas from research and practice. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Allyn & 
Bacon. 
Lazear, D. (1999). Eight ways of knowing: Teaching for multiple intelligences. 
Palatine, IL: Skylight. 
Lazear, D. (1999). The intelligence curriculum: Using MI to develop your students 
full potential. Tucson, AZ: Zephyr Press. 
Lazear, D. (1999). Multiple intelligence approaches to assessment: Solving the 
assessment conundrum. Tucson, AZ: Zephyr Press. 
Lazear, D. (2001). Seven pathways of learning: Teaching students and parents 
about multiple intelligences. Tucson, AZ: Zephyr Press. 
Lazear, D. (2003). Eight ways of teaching: The artistry of teaching with multiple 
intelligences. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. 
Lazear, D. (2004). Higher order thinking the multiple intelligences way. Tucson, 
AZ: Zephyr Press. 
Margulies, N. (1995). The magic seven: Tools for building multiple intelligences. 
Tucson, AZ: Zephyr Press. 

McKenzie, W. (2005). Multiple intelligences and instructional technology (2nd 
ed.). Washington, DC: International Society for Technology in Education. 
Nelson, K. (1998). Developing students multiple intelligences. New York: 

Scholastic. 

Puchta, H., & Rinvolocri, M. (2007). Multiple intelligences in EFL: Exercises for 
secondary and adult students. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 

Shearer, B. (1996). The MIDAS: A guide to assessment and education for the 

multiple intelligences. Columbus, OH: Greyden Press. 

Silver, H. F., Strong, R. W., & Perini, M. J. (2000). So each may learn: Integrating 
learning styles and multiple intelligences. Alexandria, VA: ASCD. 

Stefanakis, E. H. (2002). Multiple intelligences and portfolios: A window into 
the learners mind. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. 

Teele, S. (2000). Rainbows of intelligence: Exploring how students learn. Thousand 
Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

Teele, S. (2004). Overcoming barricades to reading: A multiple intelligences 
approach. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. 

Viens, J., & Kallenbach, S. (2004). Multiple intelligences and adult literacy: A 
sourcebook for practitioners. New York: Teachers College Press. 

Wahl, M. (1997). Math for humans: Teaching math through 7 intelligences. Langley, 
WA: LivnLern Press. (Order from 416 Fourth St., Langley, WA 98260.) 

Williams, R. B. (2007). Multiple intelligences for differentiated learning. Thousand 
Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. 

Zwiers, J. (2004). Developing academic thinking skills in grades 612: A handbook 
of multiple intelligences activities. Newark, DE: International Reading 
Association. 

Videos and DVDs 
Videos 

Armstrong, T. (1997). Multiple intelligences: Discovering the giftedness in all. 
Port Chester, NY: National Professional Resources, Inc. 

Armstrong, T. (2003). The multiple intelligences of reading and writing: Making 
the words come alive. Alexandria, VA: ASCD. 

Gardner, H. (1995). How are kids smart? Multiple intelligences in the classroom. 
Port Chester, NY: National Professional Resources, Inc. 

Gardner, H., Goleman, D., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1998). Optimizing intelligences: 
Thinking, emotion, and creativity. Port Chester, NY: National Professional 
Resources, Inc. 

Hoerr, T. (2000). Becoming a multiple intelligences school. Alexandria, VA: 
ASCD. 

Teele, S. (2000). Rainbows of intelligence: Raising student performance through 
multiple intelligences. Port Chester, NY: National Professional Resources, 
Inc. 

DVDs 

BBC Worldwide Ltd. (2007). Battle of the brains: The case for multiple intelligences. 
London: Author. 

Feinstein, S. (2007). Multiple intelligences. Monterey, CA: Coaches Choice. 


Appendix B 

Related Books 
on MI Teaching 


Linguistic Intelligence 

Ashton-Warner, S. (1986). Teacher. New York: Simon & Schuster. 

Bissex, G. (1980). Gnys at work: A child learns to write and read. Cambridge, 
MA: Harvard University Press. 

Graves, D., & Stuart, V. (1987). Write from the start: Tapping your childs natu


ral writing ability. New York: New American Library. 

Rico, G. L. (2000). Writing the natural way. Los Angeles: Jeremy P. Tarcher. 

Trelease, J. (2006). The read-aloud handbook. Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin. 

Logical-Mathematical Intelligence 

Allison, L. (1976). Blood and guts: A working guide to your own insides. Boston: 
Little, Brown & Co. (Grades 512) 

Burns, M. (2006). The I hate mathematics! book. Boston: Little, Brown & Co. 

Jacobs, H. (1994). Mathematics: A human endeavor (3rd ed.). San Francisco: 

W. H. Freeman. (Grades 912) 
Lorton, M. B. (1995). Mathematics their way. Menlo Park, CA: Addison-
Wesley. 
Stein, S. (1980). The science book. New York: Workman. (Grades 47) 

211 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

Spatial Intelligence 

DeMille, R. (1997). Put your mother on the ceiling: Childrens imagination 
games (5th ed.). Gouldsboro, ME: Gestalt Journal Press. 

Edwards, B. (1999). The new drawing on the right side of the brain. Los Angeles: 
Jeremy P. Tarcher. 

McKim, R. H. (2003). Experiences in visual thinking. London: Thomson Learning 
Custom Publishing. 

Samples, R. (1993). The metaphoric mind. Austin, TX: Jalmar Press. 

Warner, S. (1989). Encouraging the artist in your child. New York: St. Martins 
Press. 

Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence 

Benzwie, T. (1988). A moving experience: Dance for lovers of children and the 
child within. Tucson, AZ: Zephyr Press. 

Cobb, V. (1984). Science experiments you can eat (rev. ed.). New York: Harper 
Trophy. 

Gilbert, A. G. (2002). Teaching the 3 Rs through movement experiences. Silver 
Spring, MD: National Dance Education Organization. 

Schneider, T. (1976). Everybodys a winner: A kids guide to new sports and 
fitness. Boston: Little, Brown & Co. 

Spolin, V. (1986). Theater games for the classroom. Evanston, IL: Northwestern 
University Press. 

Musical Intelligence 

Bonny, H., & Savary, L. (1990). Music and your mind. Barrytown, NY: Station 
Hill Press. 

Brewer, C. B., & Campbell, D. G. (1991). Rhythms of learning. Tucson, AZ: 
Zephyr Press. 

Goodkin, D. (2003). Play, sing, and dance: An introduction to Orff Schulwerk. 
New York: European American Music Corporation. 

Houlahan, M., & Tacka, P. (2008). Kodaly today: A cognitive approach to elementary 
music education. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. 

Judy, S. (1990). Making music for the joy of it. Los Angeles: Jeremy P. 
Tarcher. 

Merritt, S. (1996). Mind, music, and imagery: 40 exercises using music to stimulate 
creativity and self-awareness. New York: New American Library. 


Related Books on MI Teaching 

Interpersonal Intelligence 

Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T., & Holubec, E. J. (1994). The new circles of 
learning: Cooperation in the classroom and school. Alexandria, VA: ASCD. 

Orlick, T. (2006). Cooperative games and sports: Joyful activities for everyone. 
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishers. 

Sobel, J. (1984). Everybody wins: 393 noncompetitive games for young children. 
New York: Walker & Co. 

Wade, R. C. (1991). Joining hands: From personal to planetary friendship in the 
primary classroom. Tucson, AZ: Zephyr Press. 

Weinstein, M., & Goodman, J. (1992). Playfair: Everybodys guide to noncompetitive 
play. San Luis Obispo, CA: Impact. 

Intrapersonal Intelligence 

Armstrong, T. (2007). The human odyssey: Navigating the twelve stages of life. 
New York: Sterling Publishing. 

Desetta, A. (Ed.). (2005). The courage to be yourself: True stories by teens 
about cliques, conflicts, and avoiding peer pressure. Minneapolis, MN: Free 
Spirit Publishing. 

Fox, A., Ruth, K., & Verdick, E. (2005). Too stressed to think? A teen guide to 
staying sane when life makes you crazy. Minneapolis, MN: Free Spirit 
Publishing. 

Gibbons, M. (1991). How to become an expert: Discover, research, and build a 
project in your chosen field. Tucson, AZ: Zephyr Press. 

Oaklander, V. (1988). Windows to our children. Gouldsboro, ME: Gestalt Journal 
Press. 

Naturalist Intelligence 

Beame, R. (2004). Backyard explorer kit: 3-in-1 collectors kit. New York: Workman 
Publications. 

Cornell, J. (1998). Sharing nature with children20th anniversary edition. 
Nevada City, CA: Dawn Publications. 

Lingelbach, J. R. (Ed.). (2000). Hands-on nature: Information and activities for 
exploring the environment with children (rev. ed.). Quechee, VT: Vermont 
Institute of Natural Science. 

Louv, R. (2008). Last child in the woods: Saving our children from nature- deficit 
disorder. New York: Algonquin Books/Workman. 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

Marina, L. (1991). Teaching kids to love the earth. Minneapolis, MN: University 
of Minnesota Press. 

Mitchell, A. (2008). The young naturalist kid kit. Evelyth, MN: Usborne Books. 

Roth, K. (1999). Naturalist intelligence: An introduction to Gardners eighth 
intelligence. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. 


Appendix C 

Examples of MI 
Lessons and Programs 

The following examples of lessons and programs based upon MI theory are 
designed for different grade levels. Note that in some cases MI theory is 
used to provide the basis for the development of a program (e.g., a primary-
level reading list); in other cases, MI theory is limited to the development of 
ideas that can be incorporated into existing curricular frameworks. In some 
cases, the educational focus is on the development of skills (e.g., learning 
how to multiply by 7); in other cases, the emphasis is more on concepts 
(e.g., understanding Boyles Law). In every lesson, however, activities spanning 
all eight intelligences have been used to achieve the given instructional 
objective. 

Example One 

Level: Preschool 
Subject: Shapes 
Objective: To teach students to recognize circles 

215 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

Students will experience different types of circles in the following ways: 

 
Make a group circle by joining hands. [Interpersonal, Bodily-Kinesthetic] 
 
Make circles by using their bodies. [Intrapersonal, Bodily-Kinesthetic] 
 
Look for circles around the classroom. [Spatial] 
 
Make circles in art projects. [Spatial, Bodily-Kinesthetic] 
 
Sing The Circle Game by Joni Mitchell and other circle songs (including 
rounds, which are themselves musically circular). [Musical] 
 
Make up stories about circles. [Linguistic] 
 
Compare sizes of circles (from small to large). [Spatial, Logical-
Mathematical] 
 
Find circular forms in nature. [Naturalist] 
Example Two 

Level: K1st grade 
Subject: Reading 
Objective: To help develop a book positive attitude in students 
Materials: Books that combine linguistic intelligence with one or more other 
intelligences 

A classroom library will be stocked with books of the following types: 

 
Books with read-along CDs [Linguistic] 
 
Three-dimensional pop-up books [Spatial] 
 
Wordless books (pictorial stories) [Spatial] 
 
Touch-and-feel books [Bodily-Kinesthetic] 
 
Books with sing-along CDs [Musical] 
 
Books with computerized keyboards and song lyrics [Musical] 
 
Science fun books [Logical-Mathematical] 
 
Counting books [Logical-Mathematical] 
 
This is metype books [Intrapersonal] 
 
Books on emotional themes, such as loss or anger [Intrapersonal] 
 
Interactive books [Interpersonal] 
 
Books with nature themes [Naturalist] 
 
Books that come with naturalist tools (e.g., book on insects with magnifying 
glass) [Naturalist] 

Examples of MI Lessons and Programs 

Example Three 

Level: 2nd3rd grade 
Subject: Math 
Objectives: To help students master the multiplication facts for the 7s; to 
reinforce the concept of what it means to multiply 

Students will do one of these activities each day during math class: 

 
Count to 70, standing up and clapping on every seventh number. 
[Bodily-Kinesthetic] 
 
Sing the Multiplication Rock song for the 7s. [Musical] 
 
Chant the numbers 1 to 70, placing special emphasis on every seventh 
number. [Musical] 
 
Complete a hundreds chart, coloring in every seventh number. 
[Spatial] 
 
Form circles of 10 students, each student wearing a number from 0 to 
9. Starting with the 0, participants count off as they go around the 
circle (the second time around the circle, the 0 becomes a 10, the 1 
an 11, and so on; the third time around, the 0 becomes a 20, the 1 a 
21, and so on). As they count, participants pass a ball of yarn around 
the circle, unrolling it as they do so. The first person grasps the end 
of the yarn, and every seventh person after that also grasps a section 
before passing the ball of yarn on. On reaching the count of 70, 
students will see that the yarn creates a geometric design. [Spatial, 
Bodily-Kinesthetic, Interpersonal] 
 
Create geometric designs for the 7s on a board with yarn and nails or 
in a drawing using the strategy described above (i.e., use a circle numbered 
0 to 9 and then connect with string or a line every seventh number 
up to 70). [Spatial] 
 
Listen to a story about the As Much brothers, who can touch things 
and see them multiply (e.g., when Seven Times As Much touches 3 
golden hens, 21 golden hens appear). [Linguistic] 
 
Create before-and-after drawings based on the As Much brothers 
story (e.g., pictures of Seven Times As Much just before touching the 
three golden hens and just after touching them). [Spatial] 

Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

 
Find natural forms that come in sevens (e.g., flowers), and explore 
math through natures own multiples (How many petals are there in 
six seven-petaled flowers?). Do this with living forms in a natural setting. 
[Naturalist] 
Example Four 

Level: Upper elementary 
Subject: History 
Objective: To assist students in understanding the conditions that led to the 
development of Rhode Island in early U.S. history 

Students will do one of these activities each day during history: 

 
Read textbook passages that give reasons for the settling of Rhode 
Island and discuss the material. [Linguistic] 
 
Create a time line of the events surrounding the development of Rhode 
Island. [Logical-Mathematical, Spatial] 
 
Study maps of the United States during the colonial era showing the 
progressive development of Rhode Island. [Spatial] 
 
Compare the settling of Rhode Island with the growth of an amoeba. 
[Naturalist] 
 
Act out the events surrounding the settling of Rhode Island. [Bodily-
Kinesthetic, Interpersonal] 
 
Create a song that describes the circumstances leading to the settling 
of Rhode Island. [Musical] 
 
Divide into groups representing different colonies; groups then relate 
to the development of a new group of students that becomes Rhode 
Island. [Interpersonal, Bodily-Kinesthetic] 
 
Relate the settling of Rhode Island to students own need or desire 
to break away from authority at times (e.g., conflicts with parents/ 
teachers). [Intrapersonal] 

Examples of MI Lessons and Programs 

Example Five 

Level: Junior high school 
Subject: Algebra 
Objective: To explain the function of x in an equation 

 
Students are provided with a verbal description of x (x is an 
unknown). [Linguistic] 
 
Students are given an equation (e.g., 2x + 1 = 5) and shown how to 
solve for x. [Logical-Mathematical] 
 
Students are told that x is like a masked outlaw that needs to be 
unmasked and are asked to draw their own version of x. [Spatial] 
 
Students act out an algebraic equation; a student wearing a mask plays 
x, and other students represent numbers or functions. A designated 
student then solves the equation by removing students on both 
sides of the equation in a series of steps. For instance, in the equation 
2x + 1 = 5, one student is removed from the left side, and one from the 
right, then half the students are removed from the right, and half from 
the left, revealing x as 2 (who would then unmask himself to reveal the 
number 2). [Interpersonal, Bodily-Kinesthetic] 
 
Students perform algebraic equations using manipulatives (numbers 
and functions on a scale; sides must be kept in balance in order to 
solve). [Bodily-Kinesthetic] 
 
Students rhythmically repeat the following lyrics several times: 
x is a mystery 
youve gotta find a way 
to get him all alone 
so that hes gotta say his name 


Students can accompany their chanting with any available percussion 
instruments. [Musical] 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

 
Students are asked, What are the mysteries, or xs, in your own life? 
Discuss how students solve for x in dealing with personal issues. 
[Intrapersonal] 
 
Students are told, We go hunting for a little animal whose name we 
dont know, so we call it x. When we bag our game we pounce on it and 
give it its right name. According to Clark (1972), Albert Einsteins 
uncle used this particular strategy when teaching his nephew math! 
[Naturalist] 
Example Six 

Level: High school 
Subject: Chemistry 
Objective: To teach the concept of Boyles Law 

 
Students are provided with a verbal definition of Boyles Law: For a 
fixed mass and temperature of gas, the pressure is inversely proportional 
to the volume. They discuss the definition. [Linguistic] 
 
Students are given a formula that describes Boyles Law: P  V = K. 
They solve specific problems connected to it. [Logical-Mathematical] 
 
Students are given a metaphor or visual image for Boyles Law: Imagine 
that you have a boil on your hand that you start to squeeze. As you 
squeeze it, the pressure builds. The more you squeeze, the higher the 
pressure, until the boil finally bursts and puss spurts out all over the 
room! [Spatial] 
 
Students do the following experiment: They breathe air into their 
mouths so that their cheeks puff up slightly and are told not to swallow 
the air or let it out. Then they put all the air into one side of their 
mouth (less volume) and indicate whether pressure goes up or down 
(it goes up); then theyre asked to release the air into both sides of 
their mouth (more volume) and asked to indicate whether pressure 
has gone up or down (it goes down). [Bodily-Kinesthetic] 
 
Students rhythmically repeat the following musical mnemonic: 
When the volume goes down 
The pressure goes up 



Examples of MI Lessons and Programs 

The blood starts to boil 
And a scream erupts 
I need more space 
Or Im going to frown 
The volume goes up 
And the pressure goes down [Musical] 


 
Students become molecules of air in a container (a clearly defined 
corner of the classroom). They move at a constant rate (temperature) 
and cannot leave the container (constant mass). Gradually, the size of 
the container is reduced as two volunteers holding a piece of yarn 
representing one side of the container start moving it in on the molecules. 
The smaller the space, the more pressure (i.e., bumping into 
each other) is observed; the greater the space, the less pressure. 
[Interpersonal, Bodily-Kinesthetic] 
 
Students do lab experiments that measure air pressure in sealed containers 
and chart pressure against volume. [Logical-Mathematical, 
Bodily-Kinesthetic] 
 
Students are asked about times in their lives when they were under 
pressure: Did you feel like you had a lot of space? (Typical answer: 
lots of pressure/not much space.) Then students are asked about 
times when they felt little pressure (little pressure/lots of space). Students 
experiences are related to Boyles law. [Intrapersonal] 
 
Students are told about scuba diving guidelines that caution divers 
never to dive down deep with scuba equipment, take a deep breath, 
hold it, and then go up to the surface. In terms of Boyles law, diving 
down deep increases pressure, taking a deep breath increases volume, 
going up to the surface decreases pressure, and, according to Boyles 
law, this increases volume in the lungs; however, lungs have already 
expanded to maximum capacity. Students are asked to predict what 
might happen. (Answer: possible life-threatening condition with air 
embolisms forming in bloodstream). [Naturalist] 

References 


Al-Bahan, E. M. (2006, Spring). Multiple intelligences styles in relation to improved academic 
performance in Kuwaiti middle school reading. Digest of Middle East Studies, 
1834. 

Armstrong, M. (1980). Closely observed children. London: Writers and Readers. 

Armstrong, T. (1987a). Describing strengths in children identified as learning disabled 
using Howard Gardners theory of multiple intelligences as an organizing framework. 
Dissertation Abstracts International, 48, 8A. (University Microfilms No. 8725-844) 

Armstrong, T. (1987b). In their own way: Discovering and encouraging your childs personal 
learning style. New York: Tarcher/Putnam. 

Armstrong, T. (1988). Learning differencesnot disabilities. Principal, 68(1), 3436. 

Armstrong, T. (1997). The myth of the ADD child: 50 ways to improve your childs behavior 
and attention span without drugs, labels, or coercion. New York: Plume. 

Armstrong, T. (1999a). 7 kinds of smart: Discovering and identifying your multiple intelligences
Revised and updated with information on two new kinds of smart. New York: 
Plume. 

Armstrong, T. (1999b). ADD/ADHD alternatives in the classroom. Alexandria, VA: ASCD. 

Armstrong, T. (2003). Youre smarter than you think: A kids guide to multiple intelligences. 
Minneapolis, MN: Free Spirit Publishing. 

Armstrong, T. (2005, September). Special education and the concept of neurodiversity. 
New Horizons for Learning. Retrieved June 23, 2008, from http://www.newhorizons. 
org/spneeds/inclusion/information/armstrong.htm 

Armstrong, T. (2006). The best schools: How human development research should inform 
educational practice. Alexandria, VA: ASCD. 

222 


References 

Armstrong, T. (In press). When cultures connect: Multiple intelligences as a successful 
American export to other countries. In J. Q. Chen, S. Moran, & H. Gardner (Eds.), Multiple 
intelligences theory around the world. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 

Associated Press. (1988, October 25). Poll finds Americans are ignorant of science. New 
York Times, p. C10. 

Barnett, S. M., Ceci, S. J., & Williams, W. M. (2006). Is the ability to make a bacon sandwich 
a mark of intelligence? and other issues: Some reflections on Gardners theory of 
multiple intelligences. In J. A. Schaler (Ed.), Howard Gardner under fire: The rebel 
psychologist faces his critics (pp. 95114). Chicago: Open Court. 

Bloom, B. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives. New York: David McKay. 

Bonny, H., & Savary, L. (1990). Music and your mind. Barrytown, NY: Station Hill Press. 

Brody, N. (2006). Geocentric theory: A valid alternative to Gardners theory of intelligence. 
In J. A. Schaler (Ed.), Howard Gardner under fire: The rebel psychologist faces 
his critics (pp. 7394). Chicago: Open Court. 

Campbell, L., & Campbell, B. (2000). Multiple intelligences and student achievement: Success 
stories from six schools. Alexandria, VA: ASCD. 

Carini, P. (1977). The art of seeing and the visibility of the person. Grand Forks, ND: Center 
for Teaching and Learning, University of North Dakota. 

Caro, R. (1990). Means of ascent: The years of Lyndon Johnson (Vol. 2). New York: Knopf. 

Carroll, J. B. (1993). Human cognitive abilities: A survey of factor-analytic studies. Cambridge, 
UK: Cambridge University Press. 

Chan, D. (2007). Musical aptitude and multiple intelligences among Chinese gifted students 
in Hong Kong: Do self-perceptions predict abilities? Personality and Individual 
Differences, 43(6), 16041615. 

Chanda, S. (2001, March). Multiple ways of teaching and learning in Bangladesh. Teachers 
Forum. Retrieved June 30, 2008, from http://www.unicef.org/teachers/forum/0301. 
htm 

Chen, J. Q., Moran, S., & Gardner, H. (In press). Multiple intelligences theory around the 
world. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 

Chideya, A. (1991, December 2). Surely for the spirit, but also for the mind. Newsweek, 61. 

Clark, R. W. (1972). Einstein: The life and times. New York: Avon. 

Cohen, D. L. (1991, June 5). Flow room, testing psychologists concept, introduces 
learning in disguise at Key School. Education Week, 67. 

Collins, J. (1998, October 19). Seven kinds of smart. Time, 9496. 

Comte, A. (1988). Introduction to positive philosophy. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett. 

Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York: Harper 
& Row. 

Denzin, N., & Lincoln, Y. (Eds.). (2005). The Sage book of qualitative research (3rd ed.). 
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. 

Diaz-Lefebvre, R., & Finnegan, P. (1997). Coloring outside the lines: Applying the theory 
of multiple intelligences to the community college setting. Community College Journal, 
68(2), 2831. 

Dilthey, W. (1989). Introduction to the human sciences: An attempt to lay a foundation for 
the study of society and history. Detroit, MI: Wayne State University Press. 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

Dreikurs, R. (1993). Logical consequences: The new approach to discipline. New York: 
Plume. 

Edwards, B. (1989). Drawing on the right side of the brain (Rev. ed.). Los Angeles: Jeremy 
P. Tarcher. 

Ellison, L., & Rothenberger, B. (1999). In Bangladesh: The multiple ways of teaching and 
learning. Educational Leadership, 57(1), 5457. 

Engel, B. S. (1979). Informal evaluation. Grand Forks, ND: Center for Teaching and Learning, 
University of North Dakota. 

Feldman, D. H. (1980). Beyond universals in cognitive development. Norwood, NJ: Ablex. 

Fiske, E. B. (1987, January 11). U.S. pupils lag in math ability, 3 studies find. New York 
Times, pp. A1, A17A18. 

Fiske, E. B. (1988, May 24). In Indiana, public school makes frills standard. New York 
Times, pp. A16A17. 

Fleming, E. (1984). Believe the heart: Our dyslexic days. San Francisco: Strawberry Hill 
Press. 

Furnham, A., & Akanda, A. (2004). African parents estimation of their own and their childrens 
multiple intelligences. Current Psychology, 22(4), 281294. 

Furnham, A., & Fukumoto, S. (2008). Japanese parents estimates of their own and their 
childrens multiple intelligences: Cultural modesty and moderate differentiation. 
Japanese Psychological Research, 50(2), 6376. 

Furnham, A., & Wu, J. (2008). Gender differences in estimates of ones own and parental 
intelligence in China. Individual Differences Research, 6(1), 112. 

Gadamer, H-G. (2005). Truth and method. New York: Continuum. 

Gardner, H. (1979). The child is father to the metaphor. Psychology Today, 12(10), 8191. 

Gardner, H. (1987). Beyond IQ: Education and human development. Harvard Educational 

Review, 57(2), 187193. 
Gardner, H. (1989). To open minds: Chinese clues to the dilemma of contemporary educa


tion. New York: Basic Books. 

Gardner, H. (1991). The unschooled mind. New York: Basic Books. 

Gardner, H. (1993a). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences10th anniversary 
edition. New York: Basic Books. 

Gardner, H. (l993b). Multiple intelligences: The theory in practice. New York: Basic Books. 

Gardner, H. (1993c). Creating minds. New York: Basic Books. 

Gardner, H. (1995). Reflections on multiple intelligences: Myths and messages. Phi Delta 
Kappan, 77(3), 200208. 

Gardner, H. (1999). Intelligence reframed: Multiple intelligences for the 21st century. New 
York: Basic Books. 

Gardner H. (2003, April 21). Multiple intelligences after twenty years. Paper presented at 
the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Chicago. 

Gardner, H. (2004). Audiences for the theory of multiple intelligences. Teachers College 
Record, 106(1), 212. 

Gardner, H. (2006a). Multiple intelligences: New horizons in theory and practice. New York: 
Basic Books. 


References 

Gardner, H. (2006b). On failing to grasp the core of MI theory: A response to Visser et al. 
Intelligence, 34(5), 503505. 

Gardner, H. (2006c). Replies to my critics. In J. A. Schaler (Ed.), Howard Gardner under 
fire: The rebel psychologist faces his critics (pp. 277307). Chicago: Open Court. 

Gardner, H., Feldman, D. H., & Krechevsky, M. (Eds.). (1998a). Project Zero frameworks for 
early childhood education, Vol. 1. Building on childrens strengths: The experience of 
Project Spectrum. New York: Teachers College Press. 

Gardner, H., Feldman, D. H., & Krechevsky, M. (Eds.). (1998b). Project Zero frameworks for 
early childhood education, Vol. 2. Project Spectrum: Early learning activities. New York: 
Teachers College Press. 

Gardner, H., Feldman, D. H., & Krechevsky, M. (Eds.). (1998c). Project Zero frameworks for 
early childhood education, Vol. 3. Project Spectrum: Preschool assessment handbook. 
New York: Teachers College Press. 

Gardner, H., & Moran, S. (2006). The science of multiple intelligences theory: A response 
to Lynn Waterhouse. Educational Psychologist, 4(4), 227232. 

Gentile, J. R. (1988). Instructional improvement: Summary and analysis of Madeline Hunters 
essential elements of instruction and supervision. Oxford, OH: National Staff Development 
Council. 

Ghiselin, B. (1955). The creative process. New York: Mentor. 

Gladwin, T. (1970). East is a big bird: Navigation and logic on Puluwat Atoll. Cambridge, 
MA: Harvard University Press. 

Goertzel, V., Goertzel, M. G., & Goertzel, T. G. (2004). Cradles of eminence: Childhoods of 
more than 700 famous men and women. Scottsdale, AZ: Great Potential Press. 

Goleman, D. (2006). Emotional intelligence: Why it can matter more than IQ. New York: 
Bantam. 

Goodlad, J. I. (2004). A place called school20th anniversary edition. New York: McGraw-
Hill. 

Goodman, J., & Weinstein, M. (1980). Playfair: Everybodys guide to noncompetitive play. 
San Luis Obispo, CA: Impact. 

Gordon, W. J. J., & Poze, T. (1966). The metaphorical way of learning and knowing. Cambridge, 
MA: Porpoise. 

Gottfredson, L. S. (2004). Schools and the g factor. Wilson Quarterly, 28(3), 3545. 

Gould, S. J. (1981). The mismeasure of man. New York: W. W. Norton. 

Grandin, T., & Johnson, C. (2006). Animals in translation: Using the mysteries of autism to 
decode animal behavior. New York: Simon & Schuster. 

Green, W. (1999, September). The bourgeois gentleman, multiple intelligences theory, and 
public law courses. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Political 
Science Association, Atlanta, GA. 

Greenhawk, J. (1997). Multiple intelligences meet standards. Educational Leadership, 5(1), 
6264. 

Gruber, H. (1977). Darwins tree of nature and other images of wide scope. In J. Wechsler 
(Ed.), On aesthetics in science (pp. 121142). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

Gundian, X., & Anrquez, C. (1999, September). An innovative project for Chilean education: 
Colegio Amancay de La Florida. New Horizons for Learning. Retrieved June 30, 
2008, from http://www.newhorizon.org/trans/international/gundian.htm 

Harman, W., & Rheingold, H. (1984). Higher creativity: Liberating the unconscious for breakthrough 
insights. Los Angeles: Jeremy P. Tarcher. 

Hart, L. (1981). Dont teach them; help them learn. Learning, 9(8), 3940. 

Herman, J. L., Aschbacher, P. R., & Winters, L. (1992). A practical guide to alternative 
assessment. Alexandria, VA: ASCD. 

Hoerr, T. R. (2000). Becoming a multiple intelligences school. Alexandria, VA: ASCD. 

Illingworth, R. S., & Illingworth, C. M. (1966). Lessons from childhood: Some aspects of the 
early life of unusual men and women. London: Livingstone. 

Johnson, D., Johnson, R. T., & Holubec, E. (1994). The new circles of learning: Cooperation 
in the classroom and school. Alexandria, VA: ASCD. 

John-Steiner, V. (1987). Notebooks of the mind: Explorations of thinking. New York: Harper 
& Row. 

Jung, T., & Kim, M-H. (2005). The application of multiple intelligences theory in South 
Korea: The Project Spectrum approach for young children. School Psychology International, 
26(5), 581594. 

Kluth, P. (2003). Youre going to love this kid!: Teaching students with autism in the inclusive 
classroom. Baltimore: Brookes Publishing Co. 

Kornhaber, M., Fierros, E., & Veenema, S. (2003). Multiple intelligences: Best ideas from 
research and practice. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Allyn & Bacon. 

Kovalik, S. (1993). ITI: The modelIntegrated Thematic Instruction (2nd ed.). Black Diamond, 
WA: Books for Educators. 

Kovalik, S. (2001). Exceeding expectations: A users guide to implementing brain research in 
the classroom. Black Diamond, WA: Books for Educators. 

Kunkel, C. (2007). The power of Key: Celebrating 20 years of innovation at the Key Learning 
Community. Phi Delta Kappan, 89(3), 204209. 

Lemke, M., Sen, A., Pahlke, E., Partelow, L., Miller, D., Williams, T., Kastberg, D., & Jocelyn, 
L. (2004). International outcomes of learning in mathematics literacy and problem 
solving: PISA 2003 results from the U.S. perspective. Washington, DC: U.S. Department 
of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. 

Manila Times. (2008, June 15). Multiple Intelligence High School: A school for future 
responsible entrepreneurs. Retrieved June 30, 2008, from http://www.manilatimes. 
net/national/2008/june/15/yehey/weekend/20080615week3.html 

Marchand-Martella, N. E., Slocum, T. A., & Martella, R. E. (2003). An introduction to direct 
instruction. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Allyn & Bacon. 

Margulies, N. (1991). Mapping inner space: Learning and teaching mind mapping. Tucson, 
AZ: Zephyr Press. 

Margulies, N. (1995). The magic seven: Tools for building multiple intelligences. Chicago: 
Zephyr Press. 

Marzano, R. J., Brandt, R. S., Hughes, C. S., Jones, B. F., Presseisen, B. Z., & Rankin, S. C. 
(1988). Dimensions of thinking: A framework for curriculum and instruction. Alexandria, 
VA: ASCD. 


References 

Matthews, G. B. (1996). The philosophy of childhood. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University 
Press. 

McCloskey, D. N., & Ziliak, S. (2008). The cult of statistical significance: How standard error 
costs us jobs, justice, and lives. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. 

McCoy, L. E. (1975). Braille: A language for severe dyslexics. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 
8(5), 34. 

McKenzie, W. (2005). Multiple intelligences and instructional technology (2nd ed.). Washington, 
DC: International Society for Technology in Education. 

McKim, R. H. (1980). Experiences in visual thinking (2nd ed.). Boston: PWS Engineering. 

Merrefield, G. E. (1997). Three billy goats and Gardner. Educational Leadership, 55(1), 
5861. 

Miller, A. (1981). The drama of the gifted child. New York: Basic Books. 

Mohktar, I. A., Majid, S., & Fu, S. (2007). Information literacy education through mediated 
learning and multiple intelligences. Reference Services Review, 35(3), 463486. 

Montessori, M. (1972). The secret of childhood. New York: Ballantine. 

Morrison, P., & Morrison, P. (1994). Powers of ten. New York: W. H. Freeman. 

Nelsen, J. (1999). Positive time-out and over 50 ways to avoid power struggles in the home 
and the classroom. New York: Prima. 

Nord, W. A., & Haynes, C. C. (1998). Taking religion seriously across the curriculum. Alexandria, 
VA: ASCD. 

Olson, L. (1988, January 27). Children flourish here: 8 teachers and a theory changed a 
school world. Education Week, 1819. 

Ostrander, S., & Schroeder, L. (1979). Superlearning. New York: Delta. 

Paul, R. (1992). Critical thinking: What every person needs to survive in a rapidly changing 
world. Santa Rosa, CA: Foundation for Critical Thinking. 

Perkins, D. N. (1981). The minds best work. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 

Plato. (1952). The dialogues of Plato (B. Jowett, Trans.). In R. M. Hutchins (Ed.), Great 
books of the Western world (Vol. 7). Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica. 

Polya, G. (1957). How to solve it. New York: Anchor Books. 

Polyani, K. (1974). Personal knowledge: Toward a post-critical philosophy. Chicago: University 
of Chicago Press. 

Popham, J. (2008). Transformative assessment. Alexandria, VA: ASCD. 

Poplin, M. (1984). Summary rationalizations, apologies, and farewell: What we dont know 
about the learning disabled. Learning Disability Quarterly, 7(2), 133. 

Posner, M. I. (2004). Neural systems and individual differences. Teachers College Record, 
106(1), 2430. 

Proust, M. (1928). Swanns way. New York: Modern Library. 

Recer, P. (2002, April 30). Study: Science literacy poor in U.S. Associated Press. 

Reed, J. (2007, September). Learning with IB. IB World. Retrieved June 30, 2008, from 
http://www.ibo.org/ibworld/sept07/ 

Ribot, N. (2004, March). My experience using the Multiple intelligences. New Horizons 
of Learning. Retrieved March 17, 2009, from http://www.newhorizons.org/trans/ 
international/ribot.htm 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

Rose, C. (1987). Accelerated learning. New York: Dell. 

Rosenthal, R., & Jacobsen, L. (2004). Pygmalion in the classroom: Teacher expectation and 
pupils intellectual development. New York: Crown House Publishing. 

Rozin, P., Poritsky, S., & Sotsky, R. (1971, March 26). American children with reading 
problems can easily learn to read English represented by Chinese characters. Science, 
171(3977), 12641267. 

Sacks, O. (1985). The man who mistook his wife for a hat. New York: HarperCollins. 
Sacks, O. (1990). Seeing voices: A journey into the world of the deaf. New York: Harper 

Collins. 

Sacks, O. (1995). An anthropologist on Mars. New York: Vintage. 

Sarangapani, P. M. (2000). The great Indian tradition. Retrieved June 30, 2008, from http:// 
www.india-seminar.com/2000/493/493%20padma%20m%20sarangapani.htm 

Schirduan, V., & Case, K. (2004). Mindful curriculum leadership for students with attention 
deficit hyperactivity disorder: Leading in elementary schools using multiple 
intelligences theory (SUMIT). Teachers College Record, 106(1), 8795. 

Schmidle, N. (2007, January 22). Reforming Pakistans dens of terror. Retrieved July 10, 
2008, from http://www.truthdig.com/report/ item/20070122_nicholas_schmidle_ 
reforming_pakistans_dens_of_terror/ 

Scripp, L. (1990). Transforming teaching through arts PROPEL portfolios: A case study of 
assessing individual student work in the high school ensemble. Cambridge, MA: Harvard 
Graduate School of Education. 

Shearer, B. (1994). Multiple Intelligence Developmental Assessment Scales (MIDAS). Kent, 
OH: Multiple Intelligences Research and Consulting. 

Shearer, B. (2004). Multiple intelligences after 20 years. Teachers College Record, 106(1), 
216. 

Silver, H., Strong, R., & Perini, M. (1997). Integrating learning styles and multiple intelligences. 
Educational Leadership, 55(1), 2229. 

Spearman, C. (1927). The abilities of man: Their nature and measurement. London: 
Macmillan. 

Spolin, V. (1986). Theater games for the classroom. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University 
Press. 

Steiner, R. (1964). The kingdom of childhood. London: Rudolf Steiner Press. 

Swami, V., Furnham, A., & Kannan, K. (2006). Estimating self, parental, and partner intelligences: 
A replication in Malaysia. Journal of Social Psychology, 146(6), 645655. 

Taylor-King, S. (1997, July 9). Using multiple intelligences and multisensory reinforcement 
approaches to enhance literacy skills among homeless adults. Paper presented at the 
International Congress on Challenges to Education, Kihei, Hawaii. (ERIC Document 
Reproduction Service No. ED 417 332) 

Teele, S. (1992). Teele Inventory for Multiple Intelligences (TIMI). Redlands, CA: Sue Teele 
& Associates, Inc. 

Traub, J. (1998, October 26). Multiple intelligence disorder. The New Republic, 219(17), 
2023. 

U.S. Department of Education. (2003). Identifying and implementing educational practices 
supported by rigorous evidence: A user friendly guide. Washington, DC: Author. 

References 

Viadero, D. (1991, March 13). Music and arts courses disappearing from curriculum, commission 
warns. Education Week, 4. 

Visser, B., Ashton, M., & Vernon, P. (2006). Beyond G: Putting multiple intelligences to the 
test. Intelligence, 34(5), 487502. 

Wallis, C. (2008, June 8). No Child Left Behind: Doomed to fail? Time. Available: http:// 
www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1812758,00.html 

Walters, J., & Gardner, H. (1986, March 30). The crystallizing experience: Discovery of an 
intellectual gift. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 254 544) 

Waterhouse, L. (2006). Multiple intelligences, the Mozart effect, and emotional intelligence: 
A critical review. Educational Psychologist, 4(4), 207225. 

Weinreich-Haste, H. (1985). The varieties of intelligence: An interview with Howard Gardner. 
New Ideas in Psychology, 3(4), 4765. 

Weinstein, C. (1979). The physical environment of the school: A review of the research. 
Review of Educational Research, 49(4), 585. 

Williams, W., Blythe, T., White, N., Li, J., Sternberg, R., & Gardner, H. (1996). Practical 
intelligence for school. New York: HarperCollins College Publishers. 

Willingham, D. (2004). Reframing the mind. Education Next, 4(3), 1924. 

Wolf, D., LeMahieu, P., & Eresh, J. (1992). Good measure: Assessment as a tool for educational 
reform. Educational Leadership, 49(8), 813. 

Zessoules, R., & Gardner, H. (1991). Authentic assessment: Beyond the buzzword and 
into the classroom. In V. Perrone (Ed.), Assessment in schools (pp. 4771). Washington, 
DC: ASCD. 


Index 

Note: page numbers followed by f refer to figures. Those followed by n refer to notes. 

Abbott, Jim, 152f 
activators of MIs, 2830 
activities 

in MI assessment, 42 
preferences for, by MI 
type, 33f 
for teaching MI theory, 
4753 
activity centers, 103110, 
104f 
as assessment resource, 

42 
effective use of, 109110 
labeling of, 106 
MI tables, 50 
sample activity, 110111 
student choice and, 

109110 
tape recorders in, 75 
types of, 103109, 104f 

ADHD. See attention deficit 
hyperactivity disorder 
adults, assessment of MIs in, 
21, 22f26f 

aggressive student, 

managing, 119f 
Allende, Isabel, 178f 
alternative symbol systems, 

153154 
Alvarez, Luis, 178f 
American Educational 

Research Association, 195 
analysis, as level of cognitive 

complexity, 169, 170f 
Anang culture, 177 
Andersen, Hans Christian, 

152 

anecdotal records, for MI 
assessment, 3439, 40, 
131132 

animals, presence of MIs in, 
10f11f 

application, as level of 
cognitive complexity, 169, 
170f 

apprenticeship model in MI 
schools, 125 
Argentina, MI theory in, 201 

Aristotle, 152f 
Armstrong, T., 31, 50 
art classes 

MI teaching strategies, 
97 

traditional, 123 
artistic ability, 7 
arts, applications of 

existential intelligence to, 

188 
Arts PROPEL, 135, 194195 
Ashton, M., 191 
assessment. See also 

standardized tests 
context of assessment, 
139143, 141f142f 
demonstration projects, 
134135 

documentation for 
by parents, 41 
by teacher, 3441, 

35f38f, 131134 
8-way assessment, 
135137 

230 


Index 

assessment (continued) 
of existential 
intelligence, 185 
as integral part of 
instruction, 147148 
ipsative, 130131, 145, 148 
of MI portfolios, 143147, 
147f 
of MI profile 
in adults, 21, 22f26f 
in students, 3342, 
35f38f 
need to change existing 
practices, 130131 
observation and, 3439, 
35f38f, 131 
overview, 130131 
of special needs 
students, 157, 158f 
standardized measures, 
43 
student choice of 
assessment type, 137, 
139f 
task and assessment 
combinations, 139143, 
141f142f 

time required for, 147148 
assessment specialists, in MI 
schools, 125 
assistive technology, 
153154 

attention deficit 
hyperactivity disorder 
(ADHD), 113, 118, 119 

attention of students, 
gaining, 112114 

audio files, in MI 
assessment, 132 

authentic assessment 
benefits of, 131 
characteristics vs. 
standardized tests, 132f 
as growth paradigm, 151f 
observation as key to, 131 

Bangladesh, IM theory in, 

Banneker, Benjamin, 178f 
Barnett, S. M., 196 

Beethoven, Ludwig van, 12, 
152f, 188 
behavior management 
class rules, establish


ment of, 115116 
forming groups, 116117 
gaining students 

attention, 112114 
impact of MI teaching 
on, 120 
individual problem 

behaviors, 117119, 119f 
overview of, 120 
student input into cues, 

116 
transitions, 114115 
benchmarked assessment, 
130131 
Bernard Van Leer 

Foundation, 1 
Bible, study of, 187 
Binet, Alfred, 5 
biodiversity, and special 

education, 151f 
biographies, to teach MI 
theory, 48 
biological endowment, and 

MI development, 2728 
Black Elk, 178f 
Bloom, Benjamin S., 169171, 

170f 

board games 
in MI model school, 127 
as teaching tool, 8990 
to teach MI theory, 52 

bodily-kinesthetic deficit, 150 

bodily-kinesthetic 
intelligence (body smart; 
sports smart; hand smart), 
7, 10f 

activities preferred by, 33f 
activities to teach 
children about, 4853 
activity centers for, 105, 
106, 108 

assessment of 
in adults, 23f24f 
demonstrations of 

competence, 137, 
138f 

bodily-kinesthetic 
intelligence (continued) 
in students, 36f 
test types related to, 40 
and behavior 
management, 113, 115, 
116, 117, 118, 119f 
and Blooms levels of 
cognitive complexity, 
170f 
books on, 212 
brain areas/neurological 
systems, 10f 
careers for, 179 
Christopherian 
encounters in, 168 
classroom environment 
for, 101 
computers and, 174, 175f 
core components, 10f, 14 
developmental 
trajectory, 10f 
disability empowerment 
strategies for, 155f 
disability in, 150 
documenting in 
portfolio, 144f 
end-states, 10f 
evolutionary history of, 
10f 
introducing to children, 
46, 4853 
and memory, 163 
in other species, 10f 
problem solving with, 
164165, 166 
remedial strategies 
using, 156f 
role models, 10f, 47, 48, 
152f, 178f 
sample lesson plans, 
68f, 70f 
and standardized 
testing, 13 
symbol systems, 10f 
teaching strategies, 59f, 
6162, 8285 
thinking style, 33f 
in traditional school 
programs, 123, 124f 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

body answers, as teaching 
tool, 83 
body maps, as teaching tool, 
8384 

body smart, 46. See also 
bodily-kinesthetic 
intelligence 

Boston Veterans 

Administration, 8 
Boyer, Ernest, 126 
Boyle, Robert, 186 
Braille, use by dyslexics, 153 
brain 

areas of multiple 
intelligences, 89, 
10f11f, 184 

emotional brain, 93 
brain research, and MIs, 89, 
19, 184 
brainstorming 
in lesson plan creation, 
6567 

as teaching strategy, 74 
Buddha, 11f 
Bunyan, John, 187 

calculation, as teaching tool, 
77 
calendar records, in MI 
assessment, 134 
career counseling, MI theory 
and, 178180 
career day, as MI teaching 

tool, 48 
Carroll, J. B., 191 
Carver, George Washington, 

178f 
categorization, as teaching 
tool, 7778 
categorization and 

classification ability, 6, 7 
Ceci, S. J., 196 
Celebration of Learning 

Student Sign-Up Sheet, 

139f 
Chagall, Marc, 152f 
chants, as teaching tool, 8586 
charts, student-kept, in MI 

assessment, 133 
Chavez, Cesar, 178f 

checklists, in MI assessment, 
133134 
chemistry, sample high 
school lesson plan, 220221 
childrens museums, as 

model for MI school, 125 
Chile, MI theory in, 201 
China, MI theory in, 202 
choice time, as teaching 

tool, 92 
Chomsky, Noam, 12 
Christie, Agatha, 152, 152f 
Christopherian encounters, 

167169 
Churchill, Winston, 152f 
classification, as teaching 

tool, 7778 

classroom. See also 
activity centers; behavior 
management 

activities as assessment 
resource, 42 
environment of, factors 
affecting, 99103 
classroom maps, in MI 
assessment, 134 
classroom theater, as 
teaching tool, 83, 96 
class rules, establishment of, 

115116 
Clemente, Roberto, 48 
cognitive bypassing, in 

special education, 
153154, 155f 
cognitive complexity, 
Blooms levels of, 169171 
cognitive psychology, MI 

theory and, 161 
Cole, Thomas, 188 
colleagues, as source of MI 

ideas, 21 
Collins, J., 192193, 195196 
color cues, as teaching tool, 

80 
Columbus, Christopher, 

167 
Composers Cabaret, 110 
comprehension, as level of 

cognitive complexity, 169, 
170f 

computers, and stimulation 
of MIs, 174176, 175f 
content-sensitive 
curriculums, 176 
cooperative groups, as 
teaching tool, 89 
Cooperative Learning model, 
56, 59f, 89 
Coopersmith Self-Esteem 
Inventory, 13 

core components of 
intelligences, 10f11f, 14, 
182 

Cranium (game), 52 

criterion-referenced 
assessment, 130131, 
133134 

Critical Literacy theory, 58f 
critical-thinking movement, 
58f, 76, 78, 164 
crystallizing experiences, 
2829 
Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly, 
126 
cultural background, and MI 
development, 2728 
cultural diversity 
as challenge to 
educators, 176 
MI theory and, 176178, 
205 
representing in MI 
activities, 48 
and special education, 
151f 
cultural fairness, authentic 
assessment and, 132f 
cultural valuation of 
intelligences 
as defining feature, 912, 
10f11f, 176 
existential intelligence 
and, 183 
variations in, 10f11f, 13, 

176177 
Curie, Marie, 10f, 48 
curriculum. See also lesson 

plans, multimodal 
authentic assessment 
and, 132f 


Index 

curriculum (continued) 
cultural sensitivity of, 
176 
in MI schools, 123125, 
127 

Danfoss Universe, 202 
Darwin, Charles, 11f, 12, 81, 

152f, 165166 
Darwin, Erasmus, 152f 
da Vinci, Leonardo, 152f 
deactivators of MIs, 2830 
Dead Poets Society (film), 

56 
deficit paradigm, in special 

education, 149150, 151f 
de Loria, Vine, 178f 
Demosthenes, 152f 
Denetclaw, Wilfred Foster, 

Jr., 178f 
Denmark, MI theory in, 202 
Department of Education 

research guidelines, 193 

developmental disabilities, 
MI perspective on, 
150151 

developmental trajectories 
of intelligences, 912, 
10f11f, 183 

Dewey, John, 55 
disabled students. See 
special needs students 
discographies, as teaching 
tool, 86 
displays, to teach MI theory, 
49, 50, 53 
diversity, representing in MI 
activities, 48 
documentation for MI 

assessment 
by parents, 41 
by teacher, 3441, 


35f38f, 131134 
domain projects, 135 
drama. See plays 
Dreikurs, R., 118, 119f 
dyscalculia, 150, 154 
dysemia, 150 
dyslexia, 150, 152, 153 
dysmusia, 150 

ecological factors in 
classroom, 99103 
ecological studies 
integrated throughout 
school day, 97 
teaching strategies for, 
90 
Ecological Studies 
movement, 59f 
economics, teaching 
strategies, 95 
eco-study teaching strategy, 

97 
Edison, Thomas, 81, 152f 
educators. See teachers 
Einstein, Albert, 28, 49, 152f, 

164165, 186 
Eisner, Elliot, 126 
Eliot Pearson Childrens 

School, 134 
Emile (Rousseau), 55 
emotion, as teaching tool, 

9293 
emotional brain, 93 
empirical support for MI 

theory, 191192 

empowerment strategies, 
in special education, 
153154, 155f 

end-states, 912, 10f11f. See 

also role models 
cultural values and, 176 
for existential 

intelligence, 183 
and problem-solving 
methodology, 164166 
environment, awareness 
of, 7 
environmental influences, 
and MI development, 29 
Erikson, Erik, 12 

Eroica Symphony 

(Beethoven), 12 
Escalante, Jaime, 56 
ethnic diversity, 

representing in MI 
activities, 48 


evaluation, as level of 
cognitive complexity, 169, 
170f 

evolutionary origins of MIs, 
10f11f, 1213, 184 
exceptional individuals. See 
end-states 
exercises 
activities to teach MI 

theory, 53 
activity centers, 110111 
assessment, 4243, 148 
balancing MIs use, 6971 
behavior management, 

121 

Blooms levels of 
cognitive complexity, 
172 

celebration-of-learning 
fair, 148 
Christopherian 
encounters, 172 
classroom environment, 

110 
computer software, 180 
cultural diversity, 180, 

205206 
curriculum development, 
31, 71 
evaluating new 
intelligence type, 18 
existential intelligence, 
189 
Frames of Mind study 

group, 18 
IEP development, 160 
lesson planning, 71, 

9798 
memory strategies, 171 
MI school 

implementation, 129 
MI theory vs. learning-
style model, 19 
plan for cultivating 

intelligence, 31 
portfolios, 148 
problem-solving 


strategies, 172 
response to criticisms of 

MI theory, 197198 
savant research, 19 
self-evaluation of MI 

profile, 30 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

exercises (continued) 
special education, 

159160 
symbol systems, 1819 
teaching MI theory, 53 
tracing history 

of intelligence 
development, 30 
vocational curriculum, 
180181 
existential intelligence 
addition to MI list, 
1617 
applications to 

curriculum, 184189 
assessment of, 185 
definition of, 182183 
as source of 

controversy, 184, 185 
and standards used to 
define MIs, 183184 

Experiences in Visual 
Thinking (McKim), 18 
experiential activities, to 
teach MI theory, 49 
extracurricular activities, 
MIs used in, 124f 

family influences, and MI 

development, 29 
Faraday, Michael, 152f 
Faulkner, William, 187 
feelings, sensitivity to, 7 
feeling-toned moments, as 

teaching tool, 92 
Feldman, David, 28 
Feynman, Richard, 94 
field trips, to teach MI 

theory, 48 
Five Cs of Portfolio 
Development, 143 
flow (Csikszentmihalyi), 

flow room, in model MI 
school, 127128 
Ford, Henry, 81 

Frames of Mind: The Theory 
of Multiple Intelligences 

(Gardner), 1, 56, 18, 50, 
192, 205 

free time, students use of, 
as assessment tool, 34 

Freud, Sigmund, 11f, 48 

Friluftsliv (outdoor nature 
life), 203 

Froebel, Friedrich, 55 

games. See board games 

gapahuk, 203 

Gardner, Howard 
on alternative testing, 13 
on assessment, 130, 131, 
134 
on childrens display of 
MI preferences, 32 
on Christopherian 
encounters, 167 
concept of intelligence, 6 
on criticism of MI 
theory, 192, 198 
crystallizing experiences 
research, 28 
development of MI 
theory, 12, 56, 8, 192, 
197 
on end-states, 47 
on existential 
intelligence, 182184, 
186, 188 
Frames of Mind: The 
Theory of Multiple 
Intelligences, 1, 56, 18, 
50, 192, 205 
on future of MI theory, 
173 
Intelligence Reframed: 
Multiple Intelligences 
for the 21st Century, 18 
on interaction of 
intelligences, 16 
on international impact 
of MI theory, 199, 200, 
202, 205 
and Key Learning 
Community, 126 
on memory, 162 
on MI schools, 122, 
123126 
on MI theory vs. learning 
styles theories, 17 

Gardner, Howard (continued) 
Multiple Intelligences: 
New Horizons in 
Theory and Practice, 
18, 123 
new intelligences, 
addition of, 1617 
on standardized testing, 
13, 21 
standards used to define 
MIs, 815, 192 
on superficiality of 
traditional education, 
167 
The Unschooled Mind, 167 

Gauss, Karl Friedrich, 12 

gender, representing 
adequately in MI activities, 
48 

geniuses, problem solving 
ability in, 164166 

geographical factors, and MI 
development, 29 

geography 
applications of 
existential intelligence 
in, 188 
teaching strategies 
body maps, 85 
calculations and 
quantifications, 77 
eco-study, 97 
simulations, 90 
windows onto 

learning, 95 
geology, teaching strategies, 
95 
goal-setting sessions, as 
teaching tool, 93 
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang 

von, 15, 149 

Goodall, Jane, 11f, 48, 96 

Goodlad, John, 5455, 92, 
123, 126 

Goodman, Joel, 116 

Gottfredson, L. S., 191 

grades, as indication of MI 
profile, 39 

Graham, Martha, 10f 

Grandma Moses, 12 


Index 

graphic languages, 15 
graphic symbols, as 

teaching tool, 82 
groups, forming, 116117 
growth paradigm, in MI 

special education theory, 
150151, 151f, 153, 154, 159 
Guilford, J. P., 17 

hand smart, 46. See also 
bodily-kinesthetic 
intelligence 

Hands-On-Learning 
approach, 59f 
hands-on thinking, as 

teaching tool, 83 
haptic capacity, 7 
Hart, Leslie, 120 
Hawking, Stephen, 152f 
Hayakawa, S. I., 178f 
here and now curriculum. 

See thematic instruction 
heroes. See role models 
heterogeneous grouping, in 

model MI school, 128 

HET model. See Highly 
Effective Teaching (HET) 
model 

heuristics, as teaching tool, 
7879 
higher-order thinking, 
stimulation of, 169171 
Highly Effective Teaching 
(HET) model, 107108 
historical context 
and MIs development, 
2728, 29 
and valuation of MIs, 
10f11f, 13, 176177 
history 

applications of 
existential intelligence 
in, 187 

sample lesson plan, 218 
teaching strategies 
calculations and 

quantifications, 77 
discographies, 85 
eco-study, 97 
nature walks, 94 

history (continued) 
plants as props, 96 
science thinking, 79 
simulations, 90 
Socratic questioning, 

78 
windows onto 
learning, 95 
Holocaust, and existential 

intelligence, 187 
Howe, Oscar, 178f 
human intelligence hunt, 

5051, 51f 
Huxley, Aldous, 152f 
hyperactive student, 

managing, 119f 

Ibsen, Henrik, 97 
idea sketching, as teaching 

tool, 8182 
ideographic languages, 10f, 15 
ideomotor dyspraxia, 150 
IEPs. See individualized 

educational programs 
inclusion, as goal of MI 

theory, 45, 47 
India, IM theory in, 200 
individualized educational 

programs (IEPs), 154157, 
158f 
Individualized Instruction 
strategy, 59f 
informal assessment tests, 

133 
Inouye, Daniel K., 178f 
Inspiration (software), 74 
instructional strategies, by 

intelligence type, 58f59f, 
6064, 7397 
Integrated Arts instruction, 
58f 

Integrated Thematic 
Instruction (ITI) model, 
6769, 108 

intellectual rigor of multiple 
intelligences theory, 
195197 

intelligence. See also 
multiple intelligences 
eight types of, 67 

intelligence (continued) 
Gardners concept of, 6 
prodigies and savants, 9, 
19, 150, 183 
vs. talents/appitudes/ 
skills, 8 
testing, 56 
theories of, vs. MI 
theory, 1718 

Intelligence Reframed: 
Multiple Intelligences for 
the 21st Century (Gardner), 
18 

intelligence tests. See also 
psychometric findings 
in assessing MIs, 3940 
shortcomings of, 176, 177 
support of MI theory, 

191192 
interaction of intelligences, 
16 

interdisciplinary instruction. 
See thematic instruction 

International Baccalaureate 
(IB) Organization, 200 

Internet, and stimulation of 
MIs, 176 

interpersonal intelligence 
(people smart), 7, 11f 
activities preferred by,33f 
activities to teach 
children about, 4853 
activity centers for, 105, 
107, 108 
assessment of 
in adults, 25f 
demonstrations of 
competence, 137, 
138f 
with standardized 
testing, 13 
in students, 37f 
test types related 
to, 40 
and behavior 
management, 114, 116, 
118, 119f 
and Blooms levels of 
cognitive complexity, 
170f 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

interpersonal intelligence 

(continued) 

books on, 213 
brain areas/neurological 

systems, 9, 11f 
careers for, 179 
Christopherian 


encounters in, 168 
classroom environment 
for, 102 
computers and, 174, 

175f, 176 
core components, 11f 
cultural valuation of, 11f, 

177 
developmental 
trajectory, 11f, 12 
disability empowerment 

strategies for, 155f 
disability in, 150 
documenting in 

portfolio, 145f 
end-states, 11f 
evolutionary history of, 

11f 
introducing to children, 

47, 4853 
and memory, 163 
in other species, 11f 
problem solving with, 

165, 166 
remedial strategies 
using, 156f 
role models, 11f, 47, 48, 
152f, 178f 
sample lesson plans, 

68f, 70f 
symbol systems, 11f 
teaching strategies, 59f, 

6263, 8791 
thinking style, 33f 
in traditional school 

programs, 123, 124f 
interviews, in MI 
assessment, 133 

intrapersonal intelligence 
(self smart), 7, 11f. See 
also multiple intelligences; 
self smart 
activities preferred by, 33f 

intrapersonal intelligence 

(continued) 

activities to teach 
children about, 4853 
activity centers for, 105, 
107, 109 

assessment of 
in adults, 25f 
demonstrations of 

competence, 137, 
138f 
with standardized 
testing, 13 
in students, 37f 

and behavior 
management, 114, 116, 
118, 119f 

and Blooms levels of 
cognitive complexity, 
170f 

books on, 213 
brain areas/neurological 

systems, 9, 11f 
careers for, 179 
Christopherian 


encounters in, 168 
classroom environment 
for, 102 
computers and, 174, 

175f, 176 
core components, 11f 
cultural valuation of, 11f, 

177 
developmental 
trajectory, 11f, 12 
disability empowerment 

strategies for, 155f 
disability in, 150 
documenting in 

portfolio, 145f 
end-states, 11f 
evolutionary history of, 

11f 
and goal-setting ability, 
93 
introducing to children, 

47, 4853 
and memory, 163 
in other species, 11f 
problem solving with, 165 

intrapersonal intelligence 

(continued) 

remedial strategies 
using, 156f 
role models, 11f, 47, 48, 
152f, 178f 
sample lesson plans, 

68f, 70f 
symbol systems, 11f 
teaching strategies, 59f, 

63, 9193 
thinking style, 33f 
in traditional school 

programs, 123, 124f 
ipsative assessment, 
130131, 145, 148 
IQ scores, limited usefulness 

of, 56 
Iran, MI theory in, 205 
ITI model. See Integrated 

Thematic Instruction (ITI) 
model 

Jackson, Mahalia, 178f 
Japan, MI theory in, 

204205 
Joan of Arc, 152f 
Johnson, Lyndon B., 165 
Johnson, Samuel, 152f 
Jordan, King, 152f 
journals, student 

in MI assessment, 133 
as teaching strategy, 

7576 
Joyce, James, 188 
Joyner-Kersee, Jackie, 178f 
Jung, Carl, 18 
Jung, T., 204 

Kahlo, Frida, 10f, 178f 
Keller, Helen, 152f 
Kepler, Johannes, 152f 
Key Learning Community, 

126128, 135 
Kidspiration (software), 74 
Kim, M-H., 204 
kindergarten records, in MI 

assessment, 40 
kinesthetic concepts, as 
teaching tool, 84 


Index 

King, Martin Luther, Jr., 10f, 

48, 178f 
Kipling, Rudyard, 152f 
knowledge, as level of 

cognitive complexity, 169, 

170f 
Kodly, Zoltn, 177 
Kornhaber, Mindy, 190, 193 
Kovalik, Susan, 6769, 

107108 
Kurzwell Reader, 153 

language ability. See 
linguistic intelligence 
language arts. See literature 
and language arts 
learning disabilities 
possibility of in all 
intelligences, 150 
remediation. See special 
education 

Learning Disability Quarterly 

(LDQ), 149150 
learning-style theories, vs. 
MI theory, 1718 
lecturing, MI approach to, 

57, 73 
Lee, Yuan, 178f 
Lessing, Doris, 77 
lesson plans, multimodal 

design of, 6467 

sample plans 
preschool, 215216 
K1st grade, 216 
2nd3rd grade, 

217218 
4th grade, 68f 
upper elementary, 218 
junior high school, 

219220 
high school, 220221 
thematic instruction 

plan, 70f 
to teach MI theory, 49 
thematic instruction, 

6769, 70f 
linguistic intelligence (word 
smart), 6, 10f 
activities preferred by, 
33f 

linguistic intelligence 

(continued) 

activities to teach 
children about, 4853 
activity centers for, 104, 
106, 108 

assessment of 
in adults, 22f 
demonstrations of 

competence, 136, 

138f 
in students, 35f 
test types related 

to, 40 

and behavior 
management, 113, 115, 
117, 118, 119f 

and Blooms levels of 
cognitive complexity, 
170f 

books on, 211 
brain areas/neurological 

systems, 8, 10f 
careers for, 179 
Christopherian 


encounters in, 167 
classroom environment 

for, 100 
computers and, 174, 175f 
core components, 10f 
cultural valuation of, 10f 
developmental 

trajectory, 10f, 12 
disability empowerment 

strategies for, 155f 
disability in, 150 
documenting in 

portfolio, 144f 
end-states, 10f 
evolutionary history of, 

10f 
introducing to children, 

45, 46, 4853 
in other species, 10f 
problem solving with, 

166 
remedial strategies 
using, 156f 
role models, 10f, 47, 48, 
152f, 178f 

linguistic intelligence 

(continued) 

sample lesson plans, 

68f, 70f 
savants, 9 
symbol systems, 10f, 15 
teaching strategies, 58f, 

60, 7376 
thinking style, 33f 
traditional classroom 

dominance of, 5455, 
123 
in traditional school 

programs, 124f 
Linnaeus, 152f 
literature and language arts 

applications of 
existential intelligence 
in, 187188 

sample K1st grade 
lesson plan, 216 
teaching strategies 

calculations and 

quantifications, 77 
eco-study, 97 
heuristics, 79 
journal writing, 75 
nature walks, 94 
people sculptures, 

8889 
science thinking, 79 
windows onto 

learning, 95 
Litzel, Otto, 152f 
logical-consequences 

approach, 118, 119f 

logical-mathematical 
intelligence (number 
smart; logic smart), 6, 10f 

activities preferred by, 
33f 
activities to teach 
children about, 4853 
activity centers for, 104, 
106, 108 

assessment of 
in adults, 22f23f 
demonstrations of 

competence, 136, 
138f 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

logical-mathematical 
intelligence (continued) 
in students, 35f 
test types related 
to, 40 
and behavior 
management, 114, 115, 
117, 118, 119f 
and Blooms levels of 
cognitive complexity, 
170f 
books on, 211 
brain areas/neurological 
systems, 10f 
broad applicability of, 
7677 
careers for, 179 
Christopherian 
encounters in, 168 
classroom environment 
for, 100 
computers and, 174, 
175f, 176 
core components, 10f 
cultural valuation of, 10f 
developmental 
trajectory, 10f, 12 
disability empowerment 
strategies for, 155f 
disability in, 150 
documenting in 
portfolio, 144f 
end-states, 10f 
evolutionary history of, 
10f 
introducing to children, 
46, 4853 
and memory, 163 
in other species, 10f 
problem solving with, 
166 
remedial strategies 
using, 156f 
role models, 10f, 47, 48, 
152f, 178f 
sample lesson plans, 
68f, 70f 
savants, 9 
and standardized 
testing, 13 

logical-mathematical 

intelligence (continued) 
symbol systems, 10f 
teaching strategies, 58f, 

6061, 7679 
thinking style, 33f 
traditional classroom 

dominance of, 5455, 
123 
in traditional school 
programs, 124f 

logic smart, 46. See also 
logical-mathematical 
intelligence 

Ma, Yo-Yo, 48 
Macau, IM theory in, 202 
MacDonald, James, 126 
Magouns brain, 54 
Malcolm X, 178f 
Mandela, Nelson, 11f 
manual dexterity, 7 
maps, classroom, in MI 

assessment, 134 
Marichal, Juan, 178f 
mathematics 

applications of 
existential intelligence 
in, 186187 

sample lesson plans 
preschool, 215216 
2nd3rd grade, 

217218 
junior high school, 
219220 
thematic instruction, 
70f 

teaching strategies 
body maps, 85 
classroom theater, 83 
eco-study, 97 
journal writing, 75 
nature walks, 94 
people sculptures, 

8889 
pet in the classroom, 
96 
plants as props, 
9596 
storytelling, 74 

Matlin, Marlee, 152f 
McKim, Robert, 18 
Means, Russell, 178f 
Mechanics Corner, 109110 
Melville, Herman, 187 
memory 

MI theory and, 162164 

music and, 85, 8687 
Mendel, Gregor, 152f 
mentors, and MI 

development, 29 
Menuhin, Yehudi, 2829 
metacognitive activity 

as aid to learning, 44 
encouraging in students, 

49 
metalanguage ability, 6 
metaphor, picture 

metaphors as teaching 

tool, 81 
Michelangelo, 12, 188 
MIDAS. See Multiple 

Intelligence Developmental 

Assessment Scales 
Midori, 11f, 178f 
MI Inventory for Adults, 

22f26f 
MI Inventory for students, 
35f38f 
MI lesson plans. See lesson 

plans, multimodal 
MI Pizza, 42, 45, 46f, 53 
MI planning questions, 65, 

65f 
MI Planning Sheet, 6567, 66f 
MIs. See multiple 

intelligences 
misbehavior, as MI 

assessment tool, 34 
MI schools. See schools, MI 
MI tables, to teach MI theory 

to children, 50 
MI teaching. See teaching, 
multimodal 

MI theory. See multiple 
intelligences theory 
mixed-age grouping, in 

model MI school, 128 
mnemonic ability, 6 
Montessori, Maria, 55, 112 


Index 

mood, sensitivity to, 7 
mood music 
during reflection 
periods, 91 

as teaching tool, 87 
Mora, Elizabeth Catlett, 178f 
moral intelligence, 183 
Morrison, Toni, 12, 48, 178f 
motivations, sensitivity to, 7 
Mozart, Leopold, 28 
Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus, 

912, 2728, 165 
multicultural/multiple 
intelligence fairs, 177 
multimedia learning 
projects, 174 
multimodal teaching. See 
teaching, multimodal 

Multiple Intelligence 
Developmental Assessment 
Scales (MIDAS), 43 

multiple intelligences (MIs). 
See also bodily-kinesthetic 
intelligence; interpersonal 
intelligence; intrapersonal 
intelligence; linguistic 
intelligence; logical-
mathematical intelligence; 
musical intelligence; 
naturalist intelligence; 
spatial intelligence 

additional intelligences 

Gardners additions, 
1617 (See also 
existential 
intelligence) 

other proposed 
additions, 17 

brain areas/neurological 
systems, 89, 10f11f, 
184 

core components of, 
10f11f, 14, 182 
cultural valuation of 
as defining feature, 
912, 10f11f, 176 
existential intelli-
gence and, 183 
variations in, 10f11f, 
13, 176177 

multiple intelligences 

(continued) 

developmental 
trajectories, 912, 
10f11f, 183 

development of in 
individuals, 15, 2730 
end-states, 912, 10f11f 
(See also role models) 
cultural values and, 
176 
for existential 
intelligence, 183 

and problem-solving 
methodology, 
164166 

evolutionary origins, 
10f11f, 1213, 184 
existence of all in 
everyone, 15 

expressions of 
intelligence, diversity 
in, 16 

historical context 
and MIs development, 
2728, 29 

and valuation of MIs, 
10f11f, 13, 
176177 

identification of 
in adults, 21, 22f26f 
self-assessment, 21, 

22f26f 
in students, 3342, 

35f38f 
interaction of, 16 
MI Inventory for Adults, 

22f26f 
MI Inventory for 


students, 35f38f 
in other species, 10f11f 
psychometric findings, 

13, 184, 191192 
simple terms for, 4647 
standards used to 

define, 815, 183184, 

192 
summary chart, 10f11f 
symbol systems, 10f11f, 

1415 

Multiple Intelligences: New 
Horizons in Theory and 
Practice (Gardner), 18, 123 

Multiple Intelligences 
Checklist for Students, 
35f38f 

multiple intelligences 
theory. See also Gardner, 
Howard 
activities for teaching, 
4753 
as cognitive model, 18 
criticisms of, 191197 
empirical support, 
191192 
history of, 12, 56 
intellectual rigor of, 
195197 
international impact of, 
199205 
key points of, 1516 
as metamodel for 
instruction, 55 
vs. other intelligence 
theories, 1718 
as practice-oriented 
theory, 197 
research on 
internationally, 
200201 
in U.S., 192195 
on special education, 
149, 150151, 151f, 153, 
159 
teaching to children 
activities, 4753 
culturally diverse 
approach, 177178 
ease of, 44 
five-minute 

introduction, 4547 
theoretical basis for, 815 
museums, childrens, as 
model for MI school, 125 

music 
and memory, 85, 8687 
mood music 
during reflection 
periods, 91 
as teaching tool, 87 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

music (continued) 
teaching strategies, 97 
as teaching tool, 8586 
to teach MI theory, 

5253 
musical concepts, as 
teaching tool, 87 
musical intelligence (music 
smart), 7, 11f 
activities preferred by, 
33f 
activities to teach 
children about, 4853 
activity centers for, 105, 
106, 108 

assessment of 
in adults, 24f 
demonstrations of 

competence, 137, 
138f 
in students, 37f 

and behavior 
management, 113, 114, 
116, 117, 118, 119f 

and Blooms levels of 
cognitive complexity, 
170f 

books on, 212 
brain areas/neurological 

systems, 9, 11f 
careers for, 179 
Christopherian 


encounters in, 168 
classroom environment 
for, 101102 
computers and, 174, 

175f, 176 
core components, 11f, 14 
cultural valuation of, 11f, 

177 
developmental 
trajectory, 912, 11f 
disability empowerment 

strategies for, 155f 
disability in, 150 
documenting in 

portfolio, 144f 
end-states, 11f 
evolutionary history of, 

11f, 13 

musical intelligence 

(continued) 

introducing to children, 

46, 4853 
and memory, 162163 
in other species, 11f 
problem solving with, 

165, 166 
remedial strategies 
using, 156f 
role models, 11f, 47, 48, 
152f, 178f 
sample lesson plans, 

68f, 70f 
savants, 9 
symbol systems, 11f 
teaching strategies, 59f, 

62, 8587 
thinking style, 33f 
in traditional school 

programs, 123, 124f 
music smart, 46. See also 
musical intelligence 
Myers-Briggs model, 18, 44 

naturalist intelligence 
(nature smart), 7, 11f 
activities preferred by, 33f 
activities to teach 
children about, 4853 
activity centers for, 106, 
107, 109 
addition to MI list, 16 
assessment of 
in adults, 26f 
demonstrations of 
competence, 137, 
138f 
in students, 37f 
test types related 
to, 40 
and behavior 
management, 114, 116, 
117, 119, 119f 
and Blooms levels of 
cognitive complexity, 
170f 
books on, 213214 
brain areas/neurological 
systems, 11f 

musical intelligence 

(continued) 

careers for, 179 
Christopherian 
encounters in, 168 
classroom environment 
for, 102103 
computers and, 175f, 

176 
core components, 11f 
cultural valuation of, 11f, 

13, 177 
developmental 
trajectory, 11f 
disability empowerment 

strategies for, 155f 
disability in, 150 
documenting in 

portfolio, 145f 
end-states, 11f 
evolutionary history of, 

11f 
international programs 
emphasizing, 203 
introducing to children, 

47, 4853 
and memory, 163 
in other species, 11f 
problem solving with, 

165166 
remedial strategies 
using, 156f 
role models, 11f, 47, 48, 
152f, 178f 
sample lesson plans, 

68f, 70f 
savants, 9 
symbol systems, 11f 
teaching strategies, 59f, 

6364, 9397 
thinking style, 33f 
in traditional school 

programs, 123, 124f 
nature smart, 47. See also 
naturalist intelligence 
nature vs. nurture, MI theory 
on, 28 
nature walks, as teaching 
tool, 94 
neurodiversity, 150 


Index 

neurological systems of MIs, 
10f11f 
New Horizons for Learning, 

103n 
Newton, Isaac, 186 
Nietzsche, Friedrich, 152f 
Nijinsky, Vaslav, 152f 
ninth intelligence. See 

existential intelligence 
No Child Left Behind Act, 

55, 193 
Norway, MI theory in, 203 
number smart, 46. See also 

logical-mathematical 
intelligence 
numeracy, calls for, 76 

objective of lesson plan 
importance of focus on, 
65, 65f 
sample, 68f 
observation, to assess MIs, 

3439, 35f38f, 131 
Ochoa, Severo, 178f 
one-minute reflection 

periods, as teaching tool, 
91 
Orff Schulwerk, 59f 

Pakistan, MI theory in, 205 
paralyzing experiences, 2829 
parents, as resource in MI 

assessment, 41 
Pascal, Blaise, 10f, 12 
Patton, George, 152f 
Peary Robert (Admiral), 152f 
pedagogical theory, MI 

theory as metamodel, 5556 
peer sharing, as teaching 

tool, 88 
peer tutoring, 88 
Pei, I. M., 10f, 178f 
people sculpture, as 

teaching tool, 8889, 96 
people smart, 47. See also 

interpersonal intelligence 
Perlman, Itzhak, 152f 
permanent open-ended 

activity centers, 104106, 
104f 

permanent topic-specific 
(shifting) activity centers, 
104f, 107109 

personal connections, as 
teaching tool, 9192 

personal intelligences. See 
interpersonal intelligence; 
intrapersonal intelligence 

personality disorders, 150 
personal journals, as 
teaching strategy, 7576 
personal life history, and MI 
development, 2728 
Pestalozzi, Johann Heinrich, 
55 
pet in the classroom, as 
teaching tool, 9697 
Philippines, MI theory in, 
201 

The Philosophy of Childhood 

(Matthews), 185 
photographs, for 
assessment, 39, 133 
physical education classes, 
traditional, 123 
physical skill. See bodily-

kinesthetic intelligence 
Piaget, Jean, 12 
Pictionary (game), 81 
picture metaphors, as 

teaching tool, 81 
picture smart, 46. See also 
spatial intelligence 
pigeonholing of students, 
importance of avoiding, 32 
plant growth, as metaphor 

for learning, 96 
plants as props, 9596 
Plato, 55, 186 

Playfair: Everybodys Guide 
to Noncompetitive Play 

(Goodman & Weinstein), 
116 
plays 
classroom theater, as 
teaching tool, 83, 96 
to teach MI theory, 

5253 
pods, in model MI school, 127 
Poe, Edgar Allan, 152f 

Poincar, Henri, 165 
political science, teaching 

strategies, 79, 96 
Pope, Alexander, 152f 
Poplin, Mary, 149150 
portfolios, MI, 143148 

checklist for, 146f147f 
contents of, 144f145f 
evaluation of, 143147, 

147f 
student self-evaluation 
of, 145 

uses of, 143, 146f 
positivism, 194 
Posner, M. I., 192 
Postman, Neil, 5 
Powers of Ten (Morrison & 

Morrison), 186 
Practical Intelligences for 
School, 135, 194 

problem behaviors, 
management of, 117119, 
119f 

problem solving 
MI theory and, 164167 
as sign of intelligence, 6 

process folios, 135 
process-sensitive 

curriculums, 176 
proclivities, in children, 32 
product creation, as sign of 

intelligence, 5 
project-centered instruction, 
125, 140 
project displays, to teach MI 
theory, 50 
Project Spectrum, 103n, 134, 
194, 204 
Project Zero, 1, 103n, 

134135, 140, 194 
proprioceptive capacity, 7 
prosopagnosia, 150 
Proust, Marcel, 165 
psychological studies, 

evidence of MIs in, 14 
psychometric findings, 13, 
184, 191192 
publishing of student work, 
76 
Puluwat culture, 177 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

Pygmalion effect, 153 
Pythagoras, 186 

quantifications, as teaching 
tool, 77 

Rachmaninoff, Sergei, 152f 
racial diversity, representing 

in MI activities, 48 
Rain Man (film), 9 
rapping, as teaching tool, 

8586 
Ravel, Maurice, 152f 
reading, sample lesson 

plans, 70f, 216 
readings, to teach MI theory, 
50 
real-world instruction 
apprenticeship model in 
MI schools, 125 

personal connections 
teaching strategy, 
9192 

thematic instruction, 

6769, 70f, 140 
Redmond, Granville, 152f 
referrals to special 

education, reduction of, 157 
reflection periods, as 
teaching tool, 91 

Remembrance of Things Past 

(Proust), 165 

research on MI theory 
internationally, 200201 
in U.S., 192195 

research standards, MI 
theory and, 193195 
resources, access to, and MI 
development, 29 
responsibility, building 
sense of, 92 
rhythm, as teaching tool, 

8586 
Rockefeller, Nelson, 152f 
Rodin, Auguste, 10f, 152f 
Rodrigo, Joaquin, 152f 
Rogers, Carl, 11f 
role models 

culturally diverse 
models, 177178, 178f 

role models (continued) 
end-state individuals as, 
10f11f, 47, 48, 49 
special needs models, 

151153, 152f 
Ronstadt, Linda, 178f 
Roosevelt, Franklin, 152f 
Rousseau, Jean Jacques, 55, 

152f 
rules of classroom, 
establishment of, 115116 

Sacks, Oliver, 19 
Saint Marie, Buffy, 178f 
Saudi Arabia, MI theory in, 

205 
savants, 9, 19, 150, 183 
school administrators, MIs 

used by, 180 
school-community brokers, 

in MI schools, 126 
school records, for MI 
assessment, 3941 

schools, MI 
future schools, 128129 
Gardner on, 122, 

123126 
goals of, 122, 123 
model school, 126128 
programs and 

curriculum, 123125 
staff, 125126 
schools, traditional 

emphasis on linguistic 
and logical-
mathematical 
intelligences, 5455, 
123 

MIs used in, 124f 
superficiality of 
education in, 167 
teaching style in, 5455, 
56, 99, 112113 
schoolwide themes, in 

model MI school, 127 
Schumann, Robert, 152f 
science 

applications of 
existential intelligence 
in, 185186 

science (continued) 
sample lesson plans 
high-school 
chemistry, 220221 
thematic instruction, 
70f 

teaching strategies 
eco-study, 97 
journal writing, 75 
kinesthetic concepts, 

83 
nature walks, 94 
people sculptures, 

8889 
pet in the classroom, 

96 
plants as props, 96 
storytelling, 74 
windows onto 

learning, 95 
science thinking, as teaching 

tool, 79 
self-discipline, 7 
self-esteem, 7, 159 
self-fulfilling prophecy, 

educators image of 

students as, 153 
self-knowledge, 7 
self smart, 47. See also 

intrapersonal intelligence 
sensory-channel models, 
18, 79 

7 Kinds of Smart 

(Armstrong), 31, 50 
Shakespeare, William, 87, 

187, 188 
Shearer, Branton, 43 
simulations, as teaching 

tool, 9091 
six-hour retarded child, 41 
social interaction, activities 

to encourage, 5051, 51f 
social studies 

sample thematic 
instruction lesson 
plan, 70f 

teaching strategies, 95, 
97 
sociograms, in MI 
assessment, 133 


Index 

Socrates, 78 
Socratic questioning, as 
teaching tool, 78 
software, for stimulation of 
MIs, 174176, 175f 

songs 
as teaching tool, 8586 
to teach MI theory, 

5253 
South Korea, MI theory in, 
204 
spatial intelligence (picture 
smart), 7, 10f 
activities preferred by, 
33f 
activities to teach 
children about, 4853 
activity centers for, 105, 
106, 108 

assessment of 
in adults, 23f 
demonstrations of 

competence, 137, 

138f 
in students, 36f 
test types related 

to, 40 

and behavior 
management, 113, 115, 
117, 118, 119f 

and Blooms levels of 
cognitive complexity, 
170f 

books on, 212 
brain areas/neurological 

systems, 10f 
careers for, 179 
Christopherian 


encounters in, 168 
classroom environment 
for, 100101 
computers and, 174, 

175f, 176 
core components, 10f 
cultural valuation of, 10f, 

13, 177 
developmental 
trajectory, 10f 
disability empowerment 
strategies for, 155f 

spatial intelligence 

(continued) 

disability in, 150 
documenting in 


portfolio, 144f 
end-states, 10f 
evolutionary history of, 

10f 
history of, 1213 
introducing to children, 

46, 4853 
and memory, 163 
in other species, 10f 
problem solving with, 

164165, 166 
remedial strategies 
using, 156f 
role models, 10f, 47, 48, 
152f, 178f 
sample lesson plans, 

68f, 70f 
savants, 9 
and standardized 


testing, 13 
symbol systems, 10f, 15 
teaching strategies, 58f, 

61, 7982 
thinking style, 33f 
in traditional school 

programs, 123, 124f 
Spearmans g, 17, 191 
special education 

assessment, 157, 158f 
benefits of MI theory, 
157159 
cognitive bypassing in, 
153154, 155f 
deficit paradigm in, 
149150, 151f 
empowerment strategies, 

153154, 155f 
IEP development, 
154157, 158f 


instructional strategies, 
development of, 154, 
156f 

MI theory perspective 
on, 149, 150151, 151f, 
153, 159 

role models, 151153, 152f 

special education teacher, 
changing role of, 157158 
special needs students. See 

also special education 
assessment of, 157, 158f 
MT theory perspective 

on, 149, 150151, 151f, 
153, 159 
role models, 151153, 
152f 
spelling, MI theory and, 

162163 
spiritual intelligence, 183 
sports smart, 46. See 

also bodily-kinesthetic 

intelligence 
staff of MI schools, 125126 
Stand and Deliver (film), 

56 
standardized tests 
in assessing MIs, 34, 
3940 

characteristics vs. 
authentic assessment, 
132f 

current emphasis on, 55 
incompatibility with MI 

education, 130 
informal use of, 133 
shortcomings of, 21, 131, 

135136 
support for MI theory 

in, 13 
Steiner, Rudolf, 20 
storytelling 

as teaching strategy, 
7374 
to teach MI theory, 

5253 
strength profiles, 4041, 42 
strengths in multiple MIs, as 

typical, 15, 32 
Structure of the Intellect 
theory (Guilford), 17 
student-curriculum brokers, 
in MI schools, 126, 158 
student journals. See 
journals, student 
student project displays, to 
teach MI theory, 50 


Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 

students. See also behavior 
management 
assessment of MIs in, 
3342, 35f38f 
choice, in activity 
centers, 109110 

educators image of, as 
self-fulfilling prophecy, 
153 

misconceptions, 
exploding of. See 
Christopherian 
encounters 

pigeonholing, importance 
of avoiding, 32 
as resource for own MI 

evaluation, 42 
self-evaluation of 
portfolios, 145 


as source of MI ideas, 
2627 
A Study of Schooling 

(Goodlad), 5455, 92, 123 
Suarez, Xavier L., 178f 
Sullivan, Harry Stack, 152f 
Sullivan, Tom, 152f 
supermemory music, 8687 
Suzuki Talent Education 

Program, 15, 28 
Switzerland, IM theory in, 
200 
symbols 
graphic, as teaching 
tool, 82 
use of, as human 
characteristic, 14 
symbol systems 

alternative, for special 
needs students, 
153154 

of MIs, 10f11f, 1415, 
183 

synthesis, as level of 
cognitive complexity, 169, 
170f 

tactile capacity, 7 

Taking Religion Seriously 
Across the Curriculum 

(Nord & Haynes), 185 

Tan, Amy, 178f 

tape recorders 
in activity centers, 75 
for MI assessment, 39 
as teaching tool, 75 

taxonomy of educational 

objectives (Bloom), 169 
Taylor, Jane, 161 
teachers 

importance of knowing 
ones own MI profile, 
20 

as resource in MI 
assessment, 41 
view of student, as self-

fulfilling prophesy, 153 
Teachers College Record, 195 
teaching 

MI theory as metamodel 
for, 5556 
traditional, 5455, 56, 99, 
112113 

teaching, multimodal. 
See also lesson plans, 
multimodal; special 
education 

flexibility of model, 57, 

64, 69 
history of, 5556 
lecturing, 57, 73 
resources for balancing 

MIs, 2127 

strategies, by 
intelligence type, 
58f59f, 6064, 7397 

variety of teaching styles 

in, 5657, 7273 
Teele, Sue, 43 
Teele Inventory for Multiple 

Intelligences (TIMI), 43 
temporary open-ended 
activity centers, 104f, 107 

temporary topic-specific 
activity centers, 104f, 
106107 

textbooks, use of, 73 
theater. See plays 
thematic instruction, 6769, 

70f, 140 
thinking skills programs, 166 

thinking style, by MI type, 33f 
Thompson, Nainoa, 178f 
Thorpe, Jim, 178f 
time outs for introspection, 

91 
TIMI. See Teele Inventory for 
Multiple Intelligences 
topic of lesson plan 
importance of focus on, 
65, 65f 
sample, 68f 
Toulouse-Lautrec, Henri de, 
152f 
traditional schools 

emphasis on linguistic 
and logical-
mathematical 
intelligences, 5455, 
123 

MIs used in, 124f 
superficiality of 
education in, 167 
teaching style in, 5455, 
56, 99, 112113 
transitions, management of, 
114115 

translating material into 
different intelligences, 64, 
65, 65f, 153154, 155f 

Traub, J., 190 
Truman, Harry, 152f 
tutoring, peer, as teaching 

tool, 88 

The Unschooled Mind 

(Gardner), 167 
utskole (outdoor school), 203 

Van Gogh, Vincent, 48, 152f 
Vernon, P., 191 
videotapes, for assessment, 

133 
Vineland Society Maturity 

Scale, 13 
Visser, B., 191 
Visual-Auditory-Kinesthetic 

model, 18 
visualization, as teaching 
tool, 80 
Vygotsky, Lev, 12, 74 


Index 

wall displays, to teach MI 
theory, 49, 53 
Wechsler Intelligence Scale 

for Children, 13 
Weinstein, Carol, 99 
Weinstein, Matt, 116 
Whitman, Robert, 178f 
whole language instruction, 

56 
Williams, W. M., 196 
Willingham, D., 190, 193, 194, 

195, 196 

Wilson, E. O., 11f, 152f 
windows onto learning 

strategy, 9495 
withdrawn student, 

managing, 119f 
Wonder, Stevie, 11f 
Woolf, Virginia, 10f, 77 
word smart, 45. See also 

linguistic intelligence 
work samples, in MI 

assessment, 132 
worksheets, use of, 73 

writing, sample lesson plans, 
thematic instruction, 70f 

Yamaguchi, Kristi, 178f 

Youre Smarter Than You 
Think: A Kids Guide to 
Multiple Intelligences 

(Armstrong), 50 


About the Author 

Thomas Armstrong is the author of four other books published by ASCD: 
Awakening Genius in the Classroom (1998), ADD/ADHD Alternatives in the 
Classroom (1999), The Multiple Intelligences of Reading and Writing (2003), and 
The Best Schools: How Human Development Research Should Inform Educational 
Practice (2006). He has also written several trade books, including In 
Their Own Way: Discovering and Encouraging Your Childs Personal Learning 
Style (Tarcher/Putnam, 1987), 7 Kinds of Smart: Identifying and Developing 
Your Many Intelligences (Plume, 1993), The Myth of the ADD Child: 50 Ways 
to Improve Your Childs Behavior and Attention Span Without Drugs, Labels, or 
Coercion (Plume, 1997), and The Human Odyssey: Navigating the Twelve Stages 
of Life (Sterling, 2007). For further information about his work, visit his Web 
site at www.thomasarmstrong.com and his blog at www.thehumanodyssey. 
com. To contact him, write: P.O. Box 548, Cloverdale, CA 95425; phone: 707894-
4646; fax: 707-894-4474; or e-mail: thomas@thomas armstrong.com. 

246 


www.ascd.org/learnmore 

WANT TO 

Learn More? 

More than 180,000 education professionals have 
joined ASCD, a worldwide learning community of 
teachers, principals, superintendents, curriculum 
developers, and other instructional leaders. This 


ever-growing organization is dedicated to 
learning and teaching and the success 
of each student. 

Members receive the award-winning 
magazine Educational Leadership and many 
other valuable benefits, including books 
like this one. 

Memberships are available from as low as US$29. 

Join ASCD Today! 

To learn more, go to www.ascd.org/learnmore 
or call (toll-free in the United States and Canada): 
800-933-ASCD (2723) or 703-578-9600. 

1703 North Beauregard Street,Alexandria,VA 22311-1714 USA 



EducationThomas Armstrong, an educator and psychologist, is the author of four other 
books by ASCD: Awakening Genius in the Classroom (1998), ADD/ADHD 
Alternatives in the Classroom (1999), The Multiple Intelligences of Reading and 
Writing (2003), and The Best Schools: How Human Development Research Should 
Inform Educational Practice (2006). 
EducationThomas Armstrong, an educator and psychologist, is the author of four other 
books by ASCD: Awakening Genius in the Classroom (1998), ADD/ADHD 
Alternatives in the Classroom (1999), The Multiple Intelligences of Reading and 
Writing (2003), and The Best Schools: How Human Development Research Should 
Inform Educational Practice (2006). 
To respect the many differences between peoplethis is what Howard 
Gardner says is the purpose of learning about multiple intelligences 
(MI) theory, which holds that the human mind is composed of eight 
intelligenceslinguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, 
musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalisticplus a possible 
ninth (existential). This updated 3rd edition of Multiple Intelligences in the 
Classroom, Thomas Armstrongs bestselling practical guide for educators, 
includes two new chapters that address the worldwide reach of MI and 
rebut some common criticisms of the theory. 

This new edition includes updated information and resources throughout 
the text to help educators at all levels apply MI theory to curriculum 
development, lesson planning, assessment, special education, cognitive 
skills, educational technology, career development, educational policy, and 
more. The book includes dozens of practical tips, strategies, and examples 

from real schools and districts. Armstrong provides tools, resources, and 
ideas that educators can immediately use to help students of all ages 
achieve their fullest potential in life. 

Alexandria, Virginia USA 

BROWSE EXCERPTS FROM ASCD BOOKS: 
www.ascd.org/memberbooks 

Many ASCD members received this book as a 
member benefit upon its initial release. 

Learn more at: www.ascd.org/memberbooks 

 

